AREAS COVERED: This review covers the epidemiology and burden of COPD in LMICs, and challenges and recommendations related to health-care systems, prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. Main challenges are related to under-resourced health-care systems (such as limited availability of spirometry, rehabilitation, and medicines). Lack of policy and practical local guidelines on COPD diagnosis and management further contribute to the low diagnostic and treatment rates. In the absence of, or limited number of respiratory specialists, primary care practitioners (general practitioners, nurses, pharmacists, physiotherapists, and community health workers) play an even more pivotal role in COPD management in LMICs.
EXPERT OPINION: Raising awareness on COPD, educating health-care workers, patients, and communities on cost-effective preventive measures as well as improving availability, affordability and proper use of diagnostic and pharmacological and non-pharmacologic treatment in primary care are the key interventions needed to improve COPD prevention, diagnosis, and care in LMICs.
PATIENTS AND METHODS: A total of 120 men, aged 40-70 years, with TD (serum total testosterone [TT] ≤ 12 nmol/L) were randomised to receive either i.m. TU (1000 mg) or placebo. In all, 58 and 56 men in the placebo and treatment arm, respectively, completed the study. Participants were seen six times in the 48-week period and the following data were collected: physical examination results, haemoglobin, haematocrit, TT, lipid profile, fasting blood glucose, sex hormone-binding globulin, liver function test, prostate- specific antigen (PSA) and adverse events.
RESULTS: The mean (sd) age of the participants was 53.4 (7.6) years. A significant increase in serum TT (P < 0.001), PSA (P = 0.010), haematocrit (P < 0.001), haemoglobin (P < 0.001) and total bilirubin (P = 0.001) were seen in the treatment arm over the 48-week period. Two men in the placebo arm and one man in the treatment arm developed myocardial infarction. Common adverse events observed in the treatment arm included itching/swelling/pain at the site of injection, flushing and acne. Overall, TU injections were well tolerated.
CONCLUSIONS: TU significantly increases serum testosterone in men with TD. PSA, haemoglobin and haematocrit were significantly elevated but were within clinically safe limits. There was no significant adverse reaction that led to the cessation of treatment.