Displaying publications 1 - 20 of 49 in total

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  1. Blebil AQ, S Sulaiman SA, A Hassali M, Dujaili JA, Zin AM
    Value Health Reg Issues, 2014 May;3:19-23.
    PMID: 29702926 DOI: 10.1016/j.vhri.2013.09.001
    OBJECTIVES: Assessment of nicotine withdrawal symptoms is an essential part of tobacco dependence treatment. This study aimed to evaluate the psychometric properties of a Malay translated version of the Minnesota Nicotine Withdrawal Scale (MNWS).

    METHODS: The original scale was translated into Malay following the standard guidelines proposed for translation studies. The reliability and validity of the Malay version scale were evaluated on the basis of data collected from 133 participants. The Cronbach's alpha coefficient was calculated to assess the reliability. To validate the psychometric properties of the scale, factor analysis and construct validity were used. This study was conducted at the Quit Smoking Clinic at Penang General Hospital, Penang, Malaysia.

    RESULTS: The translated scale has excellent reliability, with total Cronbach's alpha of 0.91. The test-retest reliability for the scale presented an excellent reliability and stability of the translated scale with Spearman's rank correlation coefficient (r = 0.876; P < 0.001). There was a significant positive correlation between the exhaled carbon monoxide level, Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence total score, and number of cigarettes smoked per day and the MNWS total score (r = 0.72, 0.68, and 0.68, respectively; P < 0.001). A principal-components analysis with orthogonal rotation yielded a unidimensional model that includes all the items of the MNWS.

    CONCLUSIONS: The Malay version of the MNWS is a reliable and valid measure of withdrawal symptoms as well as the smoking urge, and it is applicable to clinical practice and research study.

    Study site: Quit Smoking Clinic at Penang General Hospital, Penang, Malaysia.
  2. Ku Abd Rahim KN, Kamaruzaman HF, Dahlui M, Wan Puteh SE
    Value Health Reg Issues, 2020 May;21:91-99.
    PMID: 31698173 DOI: 10.1016/j.vhri.2019.09.002
    OBJECTIVE: To identify and describe the various economic evaluation studies in Malaysia and to determine the range of incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs) as reported in these studies.

    METHODS: A comprehensive search of the scientific electronic databases was conducted (Medline, EBM Reviews, Embase, and hand search) to identify all published economic evaluation studies related to Malaysian healthcare. Two researchers assessed the quality of selected studies using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) checklist and Quality of Health Economic Studies instrument. The assessment was also reviewed by expert members of the Technical Advisory Committee of Health Technology Economic Evaluations (TACHTEE).

    RESULTS: A total of 64 full-text articles were assessed for eligibility and included in this systematic review. Thirty studies were partial economic evaluations; the full economic evaluations included 17 cost-effectiveness analyses and 17 cost-utility analyses. From all the reported ICERs, the majority (68%) were categorized as highly cost-effective (ICER of less than 1 gross domestic product (GDP) per capita per quality-adjusted life-years or disability-adjusted life-years gained).

    CONCLUSION: This review identifies information gaps and loopholes in health economics research in Malaysia. Additionally, this study provides the information that the majority of published interventions in Malaysia fell within the cost-effectiveness threshold of 1 GDP per capita per quality-adjusted life-years or disability-adjusted life-years gained.

  3. Shafie AA, Chandriah H, Yong YV, Wan Puteh SE
    Value Health Reg Issues, 2019 May;18:145-150.
    PMID: 31082794 DOI: 10.1016/j.vhri.2019.03.003
    OBJECTIVE: To describe the process and role of health technology assessment (HTA) in the context of drug policy in Malaysia.

    METHODS: We summarized the HTA process through review of documents and reports available in the public domain combined with the authors' experience.

    RESULTS: Health technology assessment plays an integral part in prioritizing treatment in public health facilities in Malaysia, particularly for the Ministry of Health Medicines Formulary (MOHMF). The MOHMF is the reference list of drugs allowed to be prescribed in the Ministry of Health (MOH) facilities. There are 2 organizations within the MOH that conduct HTA as their core activities, namely the Malaysian Health Technology Assessment Section and the Formulary Management Branch of Pharmacy Practice & Development Division. The assessment of pharmaceuticals for the purpose of listing medicines into the MOHMF is under the purview of the Formulary Management Branch. The evidence-based assessment focuses on safety, efficacy, effectiveness, and budget impact of the drug. Cost-effectiveness evidence is currently not mandatory but is of interest to the decision makers. The assessment outcomes are considered by the MOH Medicines List Review Panel for formulary decisions.

    CONCLUSIONS: Health technology assessment has supported formulary decisions in MOH. Evidence generation needs to progress beyond efficacy or effectiveness, safety, and budget impact to incorporate cost-effectiveness. Nevertheless, there are challenges to be met to achieve this. The impact of the HTA process is currently unknown and is yet to be evaluated formally.

  4. Aljunid S, Maimaiti N, Ahmed Z, Muhammad Nur A, Md Isa Z, Azmi S, et al.
    Value Health Reg Issues, 2014 May;3:146-155.
    PMID: 29702920 DOI: 10.1016/j.vhri.2014.04.008
    OBJECTIVE: To assess the cost-effectiveness of introducing pneumococcal polysaccharide and nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae protein D conjugate vaccine (PHiD-CV) in the National Immunization Programme of Malaysia. This study compared introducing PHiD-CV (10 valent vaccine) with current no vaccination, as well as against the alternative 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13).

    METHODS: A lifetime Markov cohort model was adapted using national estimates of disease burden, outcomes of pneumococcal disease, and treatment costs of disease manifestations including pneumonia, acute otitis media, septicemia, and meningitis for a hypothetical birth cohort of 550,000 infants. Clinical information was obtained by review of medical records from four public hospitals in Malaysia from the year 2008 to 2009. Inpatient cost from the four study hospitals was obtained from a diagnostic-related group-based costing system. Outpatient cost was estimated using clinical pathways developed by an expert panel. The perspective assessed was that of the Ministry of Health, Malaysia.

    RESULTS: The estimated disease incidence was 1.2, 3.7, 70, and 6.9 per 100,000 population for meningitis, bacteremia, pneumonia, and acute otitis media, respectively. The Markov model predicted medical costs of Malaysian ringgit (RM) 4.86 billion (US $1.51 billion) in the absence of vaccination. Vaccination with PHiD-CV would be highly cost-effective against no vaccination at RM30,290 (US $7,407) per quality-adjusted life-year gained. On comparing PHiD-CV with PCV13, it was found that PHiD-CV dominates PCV13, with 179 quality-adjusted life-years gained while saving RM35 million (US $10.87 million).

    CONCLUSIONS: It is cost-effective to incorporate pneumococcal vaccination in the National Immunization Programme of Malaysia. Our model suggests that PHiD-CV would be more cost saving than PCV13 from the perspective of the Ministry of Health of Malaysia.

    Study site: UKM Medical Centre, Hospital Kuala Lumpur, Hospital
    Alor Setar, and Hospital Queen Elizabeth, Kota Kinabalu
  5. Varghese L, Ezat Wan Puteh S, Schecroun N, Jahis R, Van Vlaenderen I, Standaert BA
    Value Health Reg Issues, 2020 May;21:172-180.
    PMID: 32044690 DOI: 10.1016/j.vhri.2019.11.001
    OBJECTIVES: Countries have constrained healthcare budgets and must prioritize new interventions depending on health goals and time frame. This situation is relevant in the sphere of national immunization programs, for which many different vaccines are proposed, budgets are limited, and efficient choices must be made in the order of vaccine introduction.

    METHODS: A constrained optimization (CO) model for infectious diseases was developed in which different intervention types (prophylaxis and treatment) were combined for consideration in Malaysia. Local experts defined their priority public health issues: pneumococcal disease, dengue, hepatitis B and C, rotavirus, neonatal pertussis, and cholera. Epidemiological, cost, and effectiveness data were informed from local or regionally published literature. The model aimed to maximize quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) gain through the reduction of events in each of the different diseases, under budget and intervention coverage constraints. The QALY impact of the interventions was assessed over 2 periods: lifetime and 20 years. The period of investment was limited to 15 years.

    RESULTS: The assessment time horizon influenced the prioritization of interventions maximizing QALY gain. The incremental health gains compared with a uninformed prioritization were large for the first 8 years and declined thereafter. Rotaviral and pneumococcal vaccines were identified as key priorities irrespective of time horizon, hepatitis B immune prophylaxis and hepatitis C treatment were priorities with the lifetime horizon, and dengue vaccination replaced these with the 20-year horizon.

    CONCLUSIONS: CO modeling is a useful tool for making economically efficient decisions within public health programs for the control of infectious diseases by helping prioritize the selection of interventions to maximize health gain under annual budget constraints.

  6. Thanimalai S, Shafie AA, Ahmad Hassali MA, Sinnadurai J
    Value Health Reg Issues, 2018 May;15:34-41.
    PMID: 29474176 DOI: 10.1016/j.vhri.2017.05.006
    BACKGROUND: Systematic anticoagulation management clinic is recommended to manage patients on chronic warfarin therapy. In Malaysia, the service was introduced as warfarin medication therapy adherence clinic (WMTAC), which is managed by pharmacists with a physician advisory.
    OBJECTIVES: To assess the cost-effectiveness of WMTAC in comparison with usual medical clinic (UMC), which is managed by medical officers in Kuala Lumpur Hospital, a tertiary referral hospital in Malaysia.
    METHODS: Data from a 6-month retrospective cohort study comparing the two clinics and the mean percentages of time in the therapeutic range for the patients were used to estimate the cost-effectiveness. The mean clinic costs were estimated using the time-motion study. A Markov model with a 6-monthly cycle was used to simulate lifetime cost-effectiveness from the perspective of the health care service provider. The base-case analysis assumed a cohort of patients with atrial fibrillation, 57 years of age with comorbid illnesses. The transition probabilities of these clinic outcomes were obtained from a literature search. Future costs and effectiveness were discounted by 3% to convert to present values. All costs were in Malaysian ringgit standardized for the year 2007.
    RESULTS: The mean 6-month treatment cost was lower for the WMTAC, which was significantly lower (P < 0.001). The UMC was found to be dominated by the WMTAC for both intermediate and lifetime analyses. The sensitivity analysis showed that clinic consultation costs had a major impact on the cost-effectiveness analysis.
    CONCLUSIONS: WMTAC is a more cost-effective option than UMC in Kuala Lumpur Hospital.
    Study site: Medical clinic, Hospital Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
  7. Nasution A, Syed Sulaiman SA, Shafie AA
    Value Health Reg Issues, 2013 May;2(1):43-47.
    PMID: 29702851 DOI: 10.1016/j.vhri.2013.02.009
    OBJECTIVES: This study evaluated the clinical and economic impacts of clinical pharmacy education (CPE) on infection management among patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) stages 4 and 5 in Haji Adam Malik Hospital, Indonesia.

    METHODS: A quasi-experimental economic evaluation comparing CPE impact on 6-month CKD mortality was conducted on the basis of payer perspective. The experimental group (n = 63) received care by health care providers who were given CPE on drug-related problems and dose adjustment. The control group (n = 80) was based on the historical cohort of patients who received care before the CPE. Measure of clinical outcome applied in this study was number of lives saved/100 patients treated. Cost-effectiveness ratios for CKD stages 4 and 5 patients without CPE and with CPE and incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs) for CKD stages 4 and 5 patients were analyzed.

    RESULTS: Lives saved (%) in the treatment of CKD without CPE: CKD stage 4, 78.57; CKD stage 5, 57.58. Lives saved (%) in the treatment of CKD with CPE: CKD stage 4, 88.89; CKD stage 5, 65.45. Cost-effectiveness ratios for stage 4 with and without CPEs were Rp3,348,733.27 and Rp3,519,931.009, respectively. Cost-effectiveness ratios for stage 5 with and without CPEs were Rp7,137,874.93 and Rp7,871,822.27, respectively. ICERs were Rp2,045,341.22 for CKD stage 4 and Rp1,767,585.60 for CKD stage 5.

    CONCLUSIONS: Treatment of CKD stages 4 and 5 with CPE was more effective and cost-effective compared with treatment of CKD stages 4 and 5 without CPE. The ICERs indicated that extra costs were required to increase life saved in both stages.

  8. Yong YV, Shafie AA
    Value Health Reg Issues, 2018 May;15:6-11.
    PMID: 29474180 DOI: 10.1016/j.vhri.2017.05.001
    BACKGROUND: Patients with asthma need long-term management to maintain optimal control. In addition to routine maintenance, urgent visits and hospitalizations may be required, as these patients are prone to acute exacerbations. The aim of this study was to estimate the costs of maintenance and acute exacerbation managements in patients with asthma in a suburban public hospital in Malaysia.

    METHODS: An activity-based microcosting approach was applied to estimate the unit cost of events from the hospital's perspective. First, activities and resources that were involved in each cost center were identified and valued against a suitable form of unit. Thereafter, the mean cost of each resource per event was calculated by dividing the product of the quantity of the resource used and the unit cost of the resource by the number of events. The mean cost per event was the sum of the cost of resources for all cost centers involved. The costs were expressed in 2014 US dollars ($) and Malaysian Ringgit (RM).

    RESULTS: Data were collected from 15 maintenance, 20 acute exacerbation, and 50 hospitalization events. The mean (±SD) cost of maintenance management was $48.04 (±10.10); RM154.68 (±32.52). The cost of acute exacerbation management in the Emergency Department was $13.50 (±2.21), RM43.46 (±7.10); and in the medical ward, the cost was $552.13 (±303.41), RM1777.86 (±976.98), per hospitalization event.

    CONCLUSION: The microcosting of management of asthma-related events provides more accurate estimates that could be used in local economic studies. However, its possible limited generalizability to other types of health care settings in Malaysia needs to be kept in mind.

  9. Azmi S, Goh A, Muhammad NA, Tohid H, Rashid MRA
    Value Health Reg Issues, 2018 May;15:42-49.
    PMID: 29474177 DOI: 10.1016/j.vhri.2017.06.002
    BACKGROUND: Anemia is common among patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and chronic kidney disease (CKD) and an independent risk factor for renal disease progression. Health economic evidence is important in Malaysia and yet cost and quality-of-life (QOL) data are scarce.

    OBJECTIVES: To investigate prevalence, factors associated with anemia, and cost and QOL among T2DM patients with CKD. Here, we present the estimated 1-year cost and QOL related to anemia in this group.

    METHODS: A cross-sectional, observational study was performed at 20 government clinics. Treatment cost was calculated on the basis of resource utilization ascertained through data extracted from medical records and patient recall. QOL was elicited using the short form 36 health survey version 2 questionnaire. Propensity score matching was performed and costs and QOL were analyzed by anemia status and CKD stage.

    RESULTS: Data for 816 patients were obtained. The propensity score matching enabled a comparison of 257 patients with and without anemia. Annual treatment costs were significantly higher for patients with anemia (Ringgit Malaysia [RM] 4219 [US $983] vs. RM2705 [US $630]; P = 0.01). QOL scores were lower for patients with anemia but not statistically significant (physical component summary score: 44.8 vs. 46.2; P = 0.052; mental component summary score: 51.3 vs. 51.7; P = 0.562). Costs were higher and QOL lower among CKD stage 5 patients.

    CONCLUSIONS: This study was the first to examine anemia in this group of patients. Costs were significantly higher among anemic patients compared with nonanemic patients; patients with higher CKD stage 5 fared less well than did those in lower stages. This information suggests the need to increase detection, prevention, and early treatment of anemia when managing T2DM patients, particularly those with CKD.
  10. Taha NA, Ibrahim MI, Rahman AF, Shafie AA, Rahman AH
    Value Health Reg Issues, 2012 May;1(1):82-86.
    PMID: 29702832 DOI: 10.1016/j.vhri.2012.03.006
    OBJECTIVES: To explore the validity and reliability of a disease-specific health-related quality-of-life questionnaire-the Schizophrenia Quality of Life Scale Revision 4 (SQLS-R4)-in patients with schizophrenia in Malaysia.
    METHODS: A total of 222 outpatients with schizophrenia receiving treatment at the Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Medical Centre completed the SQLS-R4 in either the Malay or the English language. A generic self-report health-related quality-of-life measure-the EuroQoL group EuroQol five-dimensional questionnaire-and a measure of symptom severity-the Clinical Global Impression-Schizophrenia scale-were also administered to assess validity.
    RESULTS: Good internal consistency reliability was found for both the psychosocial and vitality domains (Cronbach's α = 0.95 and 0.85, respectively). Most items were also significantly correlated with their own scale score (rs ranging from 0.29 to 0.74). There was a moderate correlation between the SQLS-R4 "vitality" domain and the EuroQol five-dimensional questionnaire "usual activities" domain (rs = 0.44) and a large correlation between the SQLS-R4 "psychosocial" domain and the EuroQol five-dimensional questionnaire "anxiety/depression" domain (rs = 0.44-0.57). Most of the symptom dimensions of the Clinical Global Impression-Schizophrenia scale were also moderately correlated with the SQLS-R4 subscale scores.
    CONCLUSIONS: The SQLS-R4 is a valid and reliable health-related quality-of-life instrument for use in minimally ill patients with schizophrenia in Malaysia, but some of the items may be redundant and irrelevant. Validation of SQLS-R4 in different types of patients and various levels of illness severity is required to further verify its application.
    Study site: Psychiatry clinic, Pusat Perubatan Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (PPUKM), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
  11. Tay LX, Ong SC, Tay LJ, Ng T, Parumasivam T
    Value Health Reg Issues, 2024 Mar;40:1-12.
    PMID: 37972428 DOI: 10.1016/j.vhri.2023.09.008
    OBJECTIVES: Alzheimer's disease (AD) has become one of the most prevalent neurodegenerative disorders among the elderly. The global cost of dementia is expected to reach US $2 trillion in 2030. In this systematic review, existing evidence on the cost of dementia specific to AD is appraised.

    METHODS: A comprehensive search was done on 3 databases, namely PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Web of Science, to identify original cost-of-illness studies that only evaluate the economic burden of AD up to August 2022. The risk of bias in the studies was assessed using Consolidated Health Economic Evaluation Reporting Standards 2022 criteria. Cost articles without specifying etiology of AD or those in non-English were excluded.

    RESULTS: Twelve of 5536 studies met the inclusion criteria. The total annual cost of AD per capita ranged from US $468.28 in mild AD to US $171 283.80 in severe AD. The cost of care raised nonlinearly with disease severity. Indirect caregiving cost represented the main contributor to societal cost in community-dwelling patients. When special caregiving accommodation was opted in daily care, it results in cost shifting from indirect cost to direct nonmedical cost. Formal caregiving accommodation caused increase in direct cost up to 67.3% of overall economic burden of the disease.

    CONCLUSIONS: AD exerts a huge economic burden on patients and caregivers. Overall rise of each cost component could be anticipated with disease deterioration. Choice of special caregiving accommodation could reduce caregiver's productivity loss but increase the direct nonmedical expenditure of the disease from societal perspective.

  12. Yeong SW, Lee SW, Ong SC
    Value Health Reg Issues, 2023 Mar 02;35:57-68.
    PMID: 36870173 DOI: 10.1016/j.vhri.2023.01.006
    OBJECTIVES: This review explores the cost-effectiveness of the strategies used in the breast cancer early detection programs of low- to middle-income countries.

    METHODS: A systematic review was performed to identify related studies, published up to August 2021, on PubMed, Cochrane, ProQuest, and the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature. The Cochrane Handbook and the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses protocol were referenced during the reporting process. The Consolidated Health Economic Evaluation Reporting Standards 2022 criteria were used to assess the requirements of the selected studies. Articles with original data and full texts were included in the review. Non-low- to middle-income countries and non-English articles were excluded.

    RESULTS: This review identified 12 suitable studies, wherein 6 investigated the cost-effectiveness of clinical breast examinations (CBEs), whereas 10 looked into mammogram (MMG) with or without CBE. In 2 studies, the cost-effectiveness of raising awareness through mass media and the use of ultrasounds combined with CBE were investigated. Although cost-effective, MMG incurs greater costs and requires more skill to be performed. MMG screenings before the age of 40 years were not cost-effective. The limitations of this review include variability in the methodological approaches of its selected studies. Most of the chosen studies met the Consolidated Health Economic Evaluation Reporting Standards 2022 criteria.

    CONCLUSIONS: This review shows that adopting an age- and risk-based MMG screening approach could be viable in countries with limited resources. Future cost-effectiveness analysis research should include a section on patient and stakeholder engagement with the study's results.

  13. Rostampour M, Nosratnejad S
    Value Health Reg Issues, 2020 May;21:133-140.
    PMID: 31786404 DOI: 10.1016/j.vhri.2019.10.001
    OBJECTIVES: The present systematic review aimed to assess the healthcare financing system by studying the relevant indicators in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). The focus of this research was on the entire healthcare system without considering any specific healthcare service or population group. This article explains the conditions of equity in people's payments for healthcare services in LMICs and focuses on the strengths and weaknesses of successful or failed healthcare systems.

    METHODS: A systematic search was conducted in the existing database that included the data up to December 2016. The quantity of equity was estimated using relevant indicators and comparing the results with indicators' specific values. Narrative synthesis was then performed for the purpose of reporting the results.

    RESULTS: A total of 17 articles from 14 regions, including Palestine, China, China (Heilongjiang), China (Gansu), Ghana, Hungary, Iran, Tunisia, Tanzania, Malaysia, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Uganda, and Chile met the inclusion criteria. The findings indicated that the insurance system (individual and social) is the most equitable method of financing, whereas direct payment is the most unfair method. Nevertheless, many countries still struggle with various payment methods, and people use direct payments.

    CONCLUSIONS: Results revealed that several factors can affect a country's failure to establish equity in financing the health system. These factors include an increase in direct payments by people to reduce the government's share, failure to cover insurance for the entire population (and especially the poor), and problems in identifying people from low-income groups and setting rules for exempting them from taxes.

  14. Tanvejsilp P, Taychakhoonavudh S, Chaikledkaew U, Chaiyakunapruk N, Ngorsuraches S
    Value Health Reg Issues, 2019 May;18:78-82.
    PMID: 30641410 DOI: 10.1016/j.vhri.2018.11.004
    OBJECTIVES: To describe the process, challenges, and future direction of health technology assessment (HTA), focusing on the drug selection of the National List of Essential Medicines (NLEM) in Thailand.

    METHODS: Literature and government documents were reviewed and analyzed by authors with experiences in HTA and drug policy in the country.

    RESULTS: The structure of HTA and its process in the drug selection of the NLEM were described, followed by the outcomes of the use of HTA. Examples of lowering drug prices, as a result of price negotiation using HTA, were presented. A few examples were also provided to demonstrate how decisions were made from considering factors beyond cost-effectiveness findings. Finally, challenges on various issues including improvement of HTA structure and process were discussed for the future direction of HTA in Thailand.

    CONCLUSIONS: HTA has been adopted as a tool for the drug selection of the NLEM to help Thailand achieve universal health coverage. Nevertheless, various challenges exist and need to be addressed.

  15. Wan Ismail WNA, Jasmi N, Khan TM, Hong YH, Neoh CF
    Value Health Reg Issues, 2020 May;21:53-58.
    PMID: 31648147 DOI: 10.1016/j.vhri.2019.07.002
    BACKGROUND: Candidemia or invasive candidiasis (IC) is an increasingly common fungal infection and has been associated with high mortality, particularly among the immunocompromised and critically ill. Although several studies have been conducted to estimate the cost of managing candidemia and IC, quality assessment on the methodological aspects of these cost studies was not performed. To date, no systematic review focusing on the economic burden of candidemia and IC has ever been conducted.

    OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to systematically review the available evidence on the economic burden of candidemia and IC worldwide.

    METHODS: Databases (ie, PubMed, Scopus, EconLit, HEORO, and Ovid/Embase) were searched through June 2018. Two researchers independently assessed the quality of the eligible studies. Costs reported in the included studies were converted to 2016 USD using Campbell and Cochrane Economics Methods Group-the Evidence for Policy and Practice Information (CCEMG-EPPI)-Centre Cost Converter software.

    RESULTS: Eight articles were included in this systematic review. The mean total cost per patient with candidemia and IC ranged from $48 487 to $157 574, whereas the mean cost per hospitalization associated with candidemia and IC was from $10 216 to $37 715. All studies were from developed Western countries and reported only direct costs of candidemia and IC. Hospitalization was the main cost driver, contributing to more than half of the total costs.

    CONCLUSION: Quality cost studies on candidemia and IC based on standardized methods to provide informed decision making among healthcare authorities in implementing appropriate strategies is anticipated, in particular in developing countries.

  16. Abdul Rafar NR, Hong YH, Wu DB, Othman MF, Neoh CF
    Value Health Reg Issues, 2019 May;18:151-158.
    PMID: 31082795 DOI: 10.1016/j.vhri.2019.02.003
    OBJECTIVES: To systematically review and assess the quality of the economic evidence of adjuvant trastuzumab usage in early breast cancer in Asian countries.

    METHODS: Literature search was performed using 6 electronic databases (PubMed, Scopus, Ovid MEDLINE, EconLit, National Health Service Economic Evaluation Database, and ISI Web of Knowledge). The final search was performed in October 2018. All potential economic studies were then checked for eligibility. The reporting and methodological qualities of each study were independently assessed by 2 authors of this review, using the Consolidated Health Economic Evaluation Reporting Standards, Drummond, and Philips checklists. To compare the different currencies used in these studies, all costs were converted into US dollars (2016).

    RESULTS: A total of 6 studies were included; most of them were performed from the healthcare provider perspective. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio for evaluation performed for a lifetime horizon were reported at $8573 and $20 816 per quality-adjusted life-year in 2 studies. The model outcome was generally sensitive to the changes in trastuzumab drug acquisition cost and discount rate, as well as its clinical effectiveness. For the quality assessment, all studies fulfilled more than 50% of the requirements in the Consolidated Health Economic Evaluation Reporting Standards, Drummond, and Philips checklists.

    CONCLUSIONS: Adjuvant trastuzumab therapy is considered a cost-effective option for early breast cancer in Asian countries including China, Iran, Japan, Singapore, and Taiwan. All studies were generally well conducted. Economic evaluations from the societal perspective, with inclusion of indirect and informal care costs, are warranted to facilitate informed decision making among policy makers.

  17. Shafie AA, Hassali MA, Mohamad Yahaya AH
    Value Health Reg Issues, 2013 May;2(1):107-117.
    PMID: 29702838 DOI: 10.1016/j.vhri.2013.02.005
    OBJECTIVE: To describe the health-related quality of life (HRQOL) among nonprescription medicine customers in Malaysia and the factors that affect it.

    METHODS: A nationwide cross-sectional survey was conducted among pharmacy customers in 59 randomly selected community pharmacies in Malaysia. The self-administered questionnaire included the EuroQoL five-dimensional (EQ-5D) questionnaire, the EuroQol visual analogue scale (EQ-VAS), nonprescription medicines purchase, and demographic questions. Data were analyzed by using the multivariate analysis of variance and multiple logistic regressions.

    RESULTS: A total of 2729 customers enrolled in this study, with a mean EQ-5D questionnaire score of 0.92±0.15 and a mean EQ-VAS score of 69.92±24.80. Compared with the Malaysian adult population, nonprescription medicine customers have a lower mean EQ-5D questionnaire score (t =-4.49, P<0.01) and EQ-VAS score (t =-25.87, P<0.01). We found that pain/discomfort (25.6%) and anxiety/depression (13.7%) were the major HRQOL problems. Locality, age, ethnicity, household income per month, type of occupation, and type of nonprescription medicine purchased were associated with health status of nonprescription medicine customers (F22,5286 = 2.555; Wilks' lambda = 0.979; P< 0.01).

    CONCLUSIONS: The HRQOL of nonprescription medicine customers is lower than that of the general Malaysian population. Lower health status was independently associated with older age, living in rural areas, having low income and education level, and purchasing blood and blood-forming medicines from community pharmacy.

  18. Hiebert L, Hecht R, Soe-Lin S, Mohamed R, Shabaruddin FH, Syed Mansor SM, et al.
    Value Health Reg Issues, 2019 May;18:112-120.
    PMID: 30921591 DOI: 10.1016/j.vhri.2018.12.005
    BACKGROUND: In Malaysia, more than 330 000 individuals are estimated to be chronically infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV), but less than 2% have been treated to date.

    OBJECTIVES: To estimate the required coverage and costs of a national screening strategy to inform the launch of an HCV elimination program.

    METHODS: We designed an HCV screening strategy based on a "stepwise" approach. This approach relied on targeting of people who inject drugs in the early years, with delayed onset of widespread general population screening. Annual coverage requirements and associated costs were estimated to ensure that the World Health Organization elimination treatment targets were met.

    RESULTS: In total, 6 million individuals would have to be screened between 2018 and 2030. Targeting of people who inject drugs in the early years would limit annual screening coverage to less than 1 million individuals from 2018 to 2026. General population screening would have to be launched by 2026. Total costs were estimated at MYR 222 million ($58 million). Proportional to coverage targets, 60% of program costs would fall from 2026 to 2030.

    CONCLUSIONS: This exercise was one of the first attempts to conduct a detailed analysis of the required screening coverage and costs of a national HCV elimination strategy. These findings suggest that the stepwise approach could delay the onset of general population screening by more than 5 years after the program's launch. This delay would allow additional time to mobilize investments required for a successful general population screening program and also minimize program costs. This strategy prototype could inform the design of effective screening strategies in other countries.

  19. Jannoo Z, Mamode Khan N
    Value Health Reg Issues, 2019 May;18:30-35.
    PMID: 30419448 DOI: 10.1016/j.vhri.2018.06.003
    BACKGROUND: The prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is increasing at an alarming rate in developing countries. The accompanying complications of T2DM can be reduced by maintaining a good adherence to medication and self-care activities.

    OBJECTIVES: To evaluate medication adherence and self-care behaviors among patients with T2DM.

    METHODS: A total of 497 subjects with T2DM were recruited from three hospitals and a government clinic in the state of Selangor, Malaysia. Previously validated scales were used to measure medication adherence (Morisky Medication Adherence Scale) and diabetes self-care activities (Summary of Diabetes Self-Care Activities). Pearson correlation coefficient was used to investigate the relationship between the risk factors and medication adherence. Pearson χ2 test of association was used to test significant association.

    RESULTS: The mean age of the subjects was 55.5 years. The mean Morisky Medication Adherence Scale score was 5.65 ± 1.97, indicating a moderate adherence level to medication. Among the subjects who had low adherence level, 50.9% were Malays, followed by 34.2% Indians. The Pearson χ2 test of association indicated a significant association (P = 0.000) between ethnicity and medication adherence. The subjects had better self-care behaviors in their general diet (mean 5.04 ± 1.88) and poor self-care behaviors in blood sugar testing (mean 2.13 ± 2.34).

    CONCLUSIONS: The Malaysians had a moderate medication adherence level, whereas they were nonadherent to blood glucose testing. Emphasis on self-care activities and medication adherence is relevant to improve outcomes in the management of T2DM.
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