Stover and manure are the main solid waste in agricultural industry. The generation of stover and manure could lead to serious environmental pollution if not handled properly. Composting is the potential greener solution to remediate and reduce agricultural solid waste, through which stover and manure could be remediated and converted into organic fertilizer, but the long composting period and low efficiency of humic substance production are the key constraints in such remediation approach. In this study, we explore the effect of lignocellulose selective removal on composting by performing chemical pretreatment on agricultural waste followed by utilization of biochar to assist in the remediation by co-composting treatment and reveal the impacts of different lignocellulose component on organic fertilizer production. Aiming to discover the key factors that influence humification during composting process and improve the composting quality as well as comprehensive utilization of agricultural solid waste. The results demonstrated that the removal of selective lignin or hemicellulose led to the shift of abundances lignocellulose-degrading bacteria, which in turn accelerated the degradation of lignocellulose by almost 51.2%. The process also facilitated the remediation of organic waste via humification and increased the humic acid level and HA/FA ratio in just 22 days. The richness of media relies on their lignocellulose content, which is negatively correlated with total nitrogen content, humic acid (HA) content, germination index (GI), and pH, but positively correlated with fulvic acid (FA) and total organic carbon (TOC). The work provides a potential cost effective and efficient framework for agricultural solid waste remediation and reduction.
Miners, factory workers, traders, end-users, and foodstuff consumers all run the risk of encountering health hazards derived from the presence of elevated levels of radiation in fertilizers, as these groups often come into direct or indirect contact with fertilizers as well as raw materials throughout various linked processes such as mineral extractions, fertilizer production, agricultural practices. A total of 30 samples of various kinds of fertilizer produced in different factories in Dhaka megacity were analyzed to quantify the concentrations of primordial radionuclides using HPGe detector. Among the analyzed samples, average (range) concentration of 40K was found to be 9920 ± 1091 (8700 ± 957-11,500 ± 1265), 9100 ± 1001 (8600 ± 946-9600 ± 1056), 2565 ± 282 (2540 ± 279-2590 ± 285), and 3560 ± 392 (2620 ± 288-4500 ± 495) Bq/kg in the samples of Muriate of Potash Fertilizer, Sulphate of Potash Fertilizer, Humic Acid Fertilizer, and NPKS Fertilizer, respectively. Elevated concentration of 226Ra was found in Triple Super Phosphate Fertilizer with a mean (range) of 335 ± 37 (290 ± 32-380 ± 42) Bq/kg. The higher activity of 40K can be linked to the greater levels of elemental potassium in phosphate fertilizer. Elevated concentrations of radionuclides may also result from variations in chemical processes as well as the local geology of the mining areas where the raw materials were extracted for fertilizer production. Numerous fertilizer brands surpass prescribed limits for various hazardous parameters, presenting significant health risks to factory workers, farmers, and consumers of agricultural products. This study provides baseline information on the radioactivity of fertilizers, which could be used to develop mitigation methods, establish national fertilizer usage limits, justify regulatory frameworks, and raise public awareness of fertilizer overuse. The findings of the study could potentially help to explore the impact of fertilizer on the food chain.
The production of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) in Southeast Asia is vital to the economies of Indonesia and Malaysia. Both fertilisers and pesticides used in palm production can contain elevated concentrations of Trace Elements (TEs) which may accumulate in soils and leaf tissues of plants. We hypothesised that leaves from oil palms may be deficient in essential elements, while containing elevated concentrations of non-essential TEs commonly found in agrichemicals. Samples of plant materials (leaves and fruitlets) were collected from active and former plantations in Sumatra, Indonesia, and analysed for essential and non-essential elements. Indonesian palm oil samples were sourced in New Zealand and their elemental concentrations determined. Leaf materials from both active and abandoned production sites were deficient in N, K, S and Mo, while leaf materials from abandoned sites were deficient in P. These deficiencies may have been a contributing factor to the abandonment of production at these sites. Concentrations of non-essential elements were below or comparable to average plant concentrations and no evidence of contamination was found in plant tissues. Palm oil contained low concentrations of TEs, which did not pose any toxicity risks. However, Na and Al were present in concentrations of 1198 and 159 mg kg-1 respectively, which were higher than have been previously reported. Tropical oil palm production could benefit from the determination of bioaccumulation factors for fertiliser contaminants in E. guineensis, to limit the transfer of contaminants to plants and products if increased fertiliser applications were used to correct nutrient deficiencies.
Biofertilizers encompass microorganisms that can be applied to plants, subsequently establishing themselves within the plant's rhizosphere or internal structures. This colonization stimulates plant development by enhancing nutrient absorption from the host. While there is growing literature documenting the applications of microalgae-based and bacterial-based biofertilizers, the research focusing on the effectiveness of consortia formed by these microorganisms as short-term plant biofertilizers is notably insufficient. This study seeks to assess the effectiveness of microalgae-bacterial biofertilizers in promoting plant growth and their potential contribution to the circular economy. The review sheds light on the impact of microalgae-bacterial biofertilizers on plant growth parameters, delving into factors influencing their efficiency, microalgae-bacteria interactions, and effects on soil health. The insights from this review are poised to offer valuable guidance to stakeholders in agriculture, including farmers, environmental technologists, and businesses. These insights will aid in the development and investment in more efficient and sustainable methods for enhancing crop yields, aligning with the Sustainable Development Goals and principles of the circular economy.
Objectives. This article describes the reduction of unsafe behaviors observed at a fertilizer complex by implementation of a behavior-based safety (BBS) program via a behavior observation form developed by a multidisciplinary team. Methods. Six observation categories, i.e., position of people, reaction of people, personal protective equipment (PPE), tools used, operating procedures and housekeeping, are used to monitor safe and unsafe behaviors for a period of 18 months. Results. Safe behaviors increased from 57 to 70% and unsafe behaviors reduced from 40 to 26%. Behaviors of employees working in various sections of fertilizer complex such as ammonia, urea, utility, bagging/shipping and workshop were also observed. Non-compliance with PPE, housekeeping and standard operating procedures was also monitored in individual sections. Non-operational areas including the administration block, housing colony, maintenance workshop, warehouse, fire station and electrical substation were also observed. Among these, the maximum unsafe behaviors are for the housing colony and minimum for the electrical substation. Conclusion. It has been concluded that working on the housing colony, administration block and fire station areas will address 74% unsafe behaviors of non-operational areas. For practical applications, worldwide industries can implement this BBS program to enhance BBS, thus reducing unsafe behaviors and increasing employee morale.
The bio- and thermal degradation as well as the water absorption properties of a novel biocomposite comprising cellulose nanoparticles, natural rubber and polylactic acid have been investigated. The biodegradation process was studied through an assembled condition based on the soil collected from the central Malaysian palm oil forests located in the University of Nottingham Malaysia. The effects of the presence of the cellulose nanoparticles and natural rubber on the biodegradation of polylactic acid were investigated. The biodegradation process was studied via thermal gravimetric analysis and scanning electron microscopy. It was understood that the reinforcement of polylactic acid with cellulose nanoparticles and natural rubber increases the thermal stability by ~ 20 °C. Limited amorphous regions on the surface of the cellulose nanoparticles accelerated the biodegradation and water absorption processes. Based on the obtained results, it is predicted that complete biodegradation of the synthesised biocomposites can take place in 3062 h, highlighting promising agricultural applications for this biocomposite.
The oil palm kernel shell biochar (OPKS-B) and oil palm kernel shell activated carbon (OPKS-AC) were used as a framework to entrap urea using adsorption method. Batch adsorption studies were performed to gauge the influence of contact time on the adsorption of urea onto both OPKS-B and OPKS-AC. To evaluate the physicochemical traits of the studied materials, energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDS), N2-sorption, X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), elemental analysis, differential thermal gravity (TG/DTG) and thermal gravity were applied. Result shows OPKS-AC has a better sorption capacity for urea compared to OPKS-B. The Langmuir isotherm model better justified the sorption isotherms of urea. For the adsorption process for both OPKS-B and OPKS-AC, the pseudo-second-order kinetic model was picked as it best fitted the experimental sorption outcome with the superior R2 values of > 65.1% and > 74.5%, respectively. The outcome of the experiments showcased that the maximum monolayer adsorption capacity of the OPKS-AC towards urea was 239.68 mg/g. OPKS-AC has showed promising attributes to be picked as an organic framework in the production of controlled release urea fertiliser for a greener and environmentally friendly agricultural practices.
Global food security, which has emerged as one of the sustainability challenges, impacts every country. As food cannot be generated without involving nutrients, research has intensified recently to recover unused nutrients from waste streams. As a finite resource, phosphorus (P) is largely wasted. This work critically reviews the technical applicability of various water technologies to recover macro-nutrients such as P, N, and K from wastewater. Struvite precipitation, adsorption, ion exchange, and membrane filtration are applied for nutrient recovery. Technological strengths and drawbacks in their applications are evaluated and compared. Their operational conditions such as pH, dose required, initial nutrient concentration, and treatment performance are presented. Cost-effectiveness of the technologies for P or N recovery is also elaborated. It is evident from a literature survey of 310 published studies (1985-2022) that no single technique can effectively and universally recover target macro-nutrients from liquid waste. Struvite precipitation is commonly used to recover over 95 % of P from sludge digestate with its concentration ranging from 200 to 4000 mg/L. The recovered precipitate can be reused as a fertilizer due to its high content of P and N. Phosphate removal of higher than 80 % can be achieved by struvite precipitation when the molar ratio of Mg2+/PO43- ranges between 1.1 and 1.3. The applications of artificial intelligence (AI) to collect data on critical parameters control optimization, improve treatment effectiveness, and facilitate water utilities to upscale water treatment plants. Such infrastructure in the plants could enable the recovered materials to be reused to sustain food security. As nutrient recovery is crucial in wastewater treatment, water treatment plant operators need to consider (1) the costs of nutrient recovery techniques; (2) their applicability; (3) their benefits and implications. It is essential to note that the treatment cost of P and/or N-laden wastewater depends on the process applied and local conditions.
Green biomass is a renewable and biodegradable material that has the potential use to trap urea to develop a high-efficiency urea fertilizer for crops' better performance. Current work examined the morphology, chemical composition, biodegradability, urea release, soil health, and plant growth effects of the SRF films subjected to changes in the thickness of 0.27, 0.54, and 1.03 mm. The morphology was examined by Scanning Electron Microscopy, chemical composition was analyzed by Infrared Spectroscopy, and biodegradability was assessed through evolved CO2 and CH4 quantified through Gas Chromatography. The chloroform fumigation technique was used for microbial growth assessment in the soil. The soil pH and redox potential were also measured using a specific probe. CHNS analyzer was used to calculate the total carbon and total nitrogen of the soil. A plant growth experiment was conducted on the Wheat plant (Triticum sativum). The thinner the films, the more they supported the growth and penetration of the soil's microorganisms mainly the species of fungus possibly due to the presence of lignin in films. The fingerprint regions of the infrared spectrum of SRF films showed all films in soil changed in their chemical composition due to biodegradation but the increase in the thickness possibly provides resistance to the films' losses. The higher thickness of the film delayed the rate and time for biodegradation and the release of methane gas in the soil. The 1.03 mm film (47% in 56 days) and 0.54 mm film (35% in 91 days) showed the slowest biodegradability as compared to the 0.27 mm film with the highest losses (60% in 35 days). The slow urea release is more affected by the increase in thickness. The Korsymer Pappas model with release exponent value of < 0.5 explained the release from the SRF films followed the quasi-fickian diffusion and also reduced the diffusion coefficient for urea. An increase in the pH and decrease in the redox potential of the soil is correlated with higher total organic content and total nitrogen in the soil in response to amending SRF films with variable thickness. Growth of the wheat plant showed the highest average plant length, leaf area index and grain per plant in response to the increase in the film's thickness. This work developed an important knowledge to enhance the efficiency of film encapsulated urea that can better slow the urea release if the thickness is optimized.
Foliar fertilization is a reliable technique for correcting a nutrient deficiency in plants caused by inadequate nutrient supply to the roots in acid soil. Soluble nutrients in banana pseudostem sap might be effective to supplement chemical fertilizers. However, the limited nutrients in sole banana pseudostem sap as foliar fertilization may not meet-up the nutritional demand of the crop. Field trials were, therefore, conducted with the combination of soil-applied fertilizers with foliar spray of banana pseudostem sap to increase nutrient uptake, yield, and quality of sweet corn planted in acidic soil. Three treatments viz., 100% recommended dose of fertilizers (RD) as control (T1), 75% of RD applied in soil with foliar application of non-enriched banana pseudostem sap (T2), and 50% RD applied in soil with foliar spray of enriched banana pseudostem sap (T3) were replicated four times. The combination of soil-applied fertilizer with foliar spray of enriched banana pseudostem sap (T3) showed a significant increase in leaf area index (11.3%), photosynthesis (12%), fresh cob yield (39%), and biomass of corn (29%) over control. Besides, the 50% RD of soil fertilization with foliar spray of enriched pseudostem sap increased nutrient uptake in addition to an increase in sugar content, phenolic content, soluble protein, and amino acids of corn. Considering the economic analysis, the highest net income, BCR (3.74) and MBCR (1.25) values confirmed the economic viability of T3 treatment over the T1. The results suggest that foliar spray of enriched banana pseudostem sap can be used as a supplementary source of nutrients to enhance nutrient uptake by corn while increasing yield and minimizing chemical fertilizer use in acid soil.
Rice brown spot (BS) exerts devastating agronomic effects on grain quality and overall productivity. In Peninsular Malaysia, BS disease incidence is fairly prevalent and little is known about the diversity of BS pathogens in the local granaries. Fifteen isolates from BS symptomatic rice plants were identified at five different rice granaries across Peninsular Malaysia. Based on the morphological and molecular analyses, two isolates were confirmed as Bipolaris oryzae while the rest were identified as Exserohilum rostratum. Phylogenetic tree analysis revealed that BS incidence in rice granaries in Peninsular Malaysia is caused by a pair of closely related fungal pathogens, E. rostratum and B. oryzae, with the former being more predominant. Cultural characterization of E. rostratum isolate KT831962 showed the best growth and sporulation activity on corn meal agar plates incubated in complete darkness. The effects of calcium silicate (CaSiO3) and rice husk ash (RHA) soil amendment against MR219 and MR253 rice varieties were evaluated during rice-E. rostratum interaction. Results showed that soil amelioration using CaSiO3 and RHA singly and in combination with manganese (Mn) significantly reduced rice BS disease severity. The BS disease index was reduced significantly to less than 31.6% in the silicon-treated rice plants relative to the control plants at 41.2%. Likewise, the grain yield at the harvest stage showed significantly higher yield in the Si-treated rice plants in comparison to the control, non-Si treated rice plants. The findings highlight the potential of RHA agro-waste as Si fertilizer in a sustainable rice production system.
One of the most significant chemical operations in the past century was the Haber-Bosch catalytic synthesis of ammonia, a fertilizer vital to human life. Many catalysts are developed for effective route of ammonia synthesis. The major challenges are to reduce temperature and pressure of process and to improve conversion of reactants produce green ammonia. The present review, briefly discusses the evolution of ammonia synthesis and current advances in nanocatalyst development. There are promising new ammonia synthesis catalysts of different morphology as well as magnetic nanoparticles and nanowires that could replace conventional Fused-Fe and Promoted-Ru catalysts in existing ammonia synthesis plants. These magnetic nanocatalyst could be basis for the production of magnetically induced one-step green ammonia and urea synthesis processes in future.
A large amount of ammonia volatilization from the agricultural system causes environmental problems and increases production costs. Conservation agriculture has emerged as an alternate and sustainable crop production system. Therefore, in the present study, ammonia losses from different agricultural practices were evaluated for the wheat crop under different tillage practices. The results of the present study showed that the cumulative emission of ammonia flux from the wheat field varied from 6.23 to 24.00 kg ha-1 (P ≤ 0.05) in conservation tillage (CA) and 7.03 to 26.58 kg ha-1 (P ≤ 0.05) in conventional tillage (CT) among different treatments. Application of basal 80% nitrogen resulted in the highest ammonia flux in conventional and conservation tillage practices. The ammonia volatilization followed the following trend: urea super granules with band placement > neem-coated urea with band placement > neem-coated urea with broadcast before irrigation > neem-coated urea with broadcast after irrigation > slow-release N fertilizer (urea stabilized with DCD and N(n-butyl)thiophosphoric triamide) with band placement. The conservation agricultural practices involving conservation tillage appear to be a sustainable approach for minimizing ammonia volatilization and improving wheat productivity.
Palm oil production has increased significantly, specifically in Indonesia and Malaysia. However, this growth has raised environmental concerns due to the high discharge of empty fruit bunches, palm oil mill effluents, and other solid wastes. Therefore, this study aims to examine the treatment of palm oil waste by composting and systematically review insights into its application through a systematic literature review approach. Among the 1155 articles, a total of 135 were selected for a systematic review of palm oil waste management developments and their applications, while 14 were used for determining compost quality according to the criteria and requirements established in the systematic literature review. Moreover, using Egger's test, JAMOVI 1.6.23 software was used to analyze random effects models with 95% confidence intervals and publication bias. The results showed that palm oil waste was optimally treated by composting, which is considered as a sustainable technology for protecting the environment, human safety, and economic value. The in-vessel method with a controlled composting chamber is the best system with a minimum time of 14 days. However, it requires tight control and provides a final product with a high microbial colony form outdoors and indoors compared to the windrow system. This study is useful to see the bias of research results and helps to find new studies that need to be developed, especially in this case related to the management of palm oil waste into organic compost fertilizer and its application methods in the field. It is suggested that applying palm oil waste or compost is mainly performed by mulching. In contrast, new challenges for better processing to produce organic fertilizers and applicable technologies for sustainable waste management are recommended. The method must be affordable, efficient, and practical, combining compost quality with maximum nutrient recovery.
Sewage sludge has long been regarded as a hazardous waste by virtue of the loaded heavy metals and pathogens. Recently, more advanced technologies are introduced to make use of the nutrients from this hazardous sludge. Successful recovery of sludge's carbon content could significantly convert waste to energy and promote energy sustainability. Meanwhile, the recovery of nitrogen and trace minerals allows the production of fertilizers. This review is elucidating the performances of modern thermal treatment technologies in recovering resources from sewage sludge while reducing its environmental impacts. Exhaustive investigations show that most modern technologies are capable of recovering sludge's carbon content for energy generation. Concurrently, the technologies could as well stabilize heavy metals, destroy harmful pathogens, and reduce the volume of sludge to minimize the environmental impacts. Nevertheless, the high initial investment cost still poses a huge hurdle for many developing countries. Since the initial investment cost is inevitable, the future works should focus on improving the profit margin of thermal technologies; so that it would be more financially attractive. This can be done through process optimization, improved process design as well as the use of suitable co-substrates, additives, and catalyst as propounded in the review.
Unbalanced utilization of nitrogen (N) rice not economically viable neither is this practice environmental friendly. Co-application of biochar and urea could reduce the unbalanced use of this N fertilizer in rice cultivation. Thus, a field study was carried out to: (i) determine the effects of chicken litter biochar and urea fertilization on N concentration in soil solution of a cultivated rice (MR219) using dielectric measurement at a low frequency and (ii) correlate soil dielectric conductivity with rice grain yield at maturity. Dielectric response of the soil samples at 20, 40, 55, and 75 days after transplanting were determined using an inductance-capacitance-resistance meter HIOKI 3522-50 LCR HiTESTER. Selected soil chemical properties and yield were determined using standard procedures. The dielectric conductivity and permittivity of the soil samples measured before transplanting the rice seedlings were higher than those for the soil samples after transplanting. This was due to the inherent nitrogen of the chicken litter biochar and the low nitrogen uptake at the transplanting stage. The soil N response increased with increasing measurement frequency and N concentration. The permittivity of the soil samples was inversely proportional to frequency but directly proportional to N concentration in the soil solution. The estimated contents of N in the soil using the dielectric conductivity approach at 1000 Hz decreased with increasing days of fertilization and the results were similar to those of soil NH4+ determined using chemical analysis. The conductivity measured within 1000 Hz and 100,000 Hz correlated positively with the rice grain yield suggesting that nitrogen concentration of the soil can be used to estimate grain yield of the cultivated rice plants.
Wastewater is water that has already been contaminated by domestic, industrial and commercial activity that needs to be treated before it could be discharged into some other water bodies to avoid even more groundwater contamination supplies. It consists of various contaminants like heavy metals, organic pollutants, inorganic pollutants and Emerging contaminants. Research has been doing on all types of contaminates more than a decade, but this emerging contaminants is the contaminants which arises mostly from pharmaceuticals, personal care products, hormones and fertilizer industries. The majority of emerging contaminants did not have standardized guidelines, but may have adverse effects on human and marine organisms, even at smaller concentrations. Typically, extremely low doses of emerging contaminants are found in the marine environment and cause a potential risk to the aquatic animals living there. When contaminants emerge in the marine world, they are potentially toxic and pose many risks to the health of both man and livestock. The aim of this article is to review the Emerging contaminate sources, detection methods and treatment methods. The purpose of this study is to consider the adsorption as a beneficial treatment of emerging contaminants also advanced and cost effective emerging contaminates treatment methods.
In this study, a mineral-based coated urea was fabricated in a rotary pan coater using a mixture of gypsum/sulfur/zeolite (G25S25Z50) as an effective and low-cost coating material. The effects of different coating compositions on the dissolution rate of urea and the crushing strength and morphology of the coated urea were investigated. A 25:25:50 (wt %) mixture of gypsum/sulfur/zeolite (G25S25Z50) increased the coating effectiveness to 34.1% with the highest crushing strength (31.06 N). The effectiveness of coated urea was further improved to 46.6% with the addition of a microcrystalline wax (3%) as a sealant. Furthermore, the release mechanisms of various urea fertilizers were determined by fitting the release profiles with six mathematical models, namely, the zeroth-order, first-order, second-order, Higuchi, Ritger & Peppas, and Kopcha models. The results showed that the release mechanism of the uncoated urea and all other coated urea followed the Ritger & Peppas model, suggesting the diffusional release from nonswellable delivery systems. In addition, due to the increased mass-transfer resistance, the kinetic constant was decreased from 0.2233 for uncoated urea to 0.1338 for G25S25Z50-coated urea and was further decreased to 0.0985 when 3% Witcovar 146 sealant was applied.
Source-separating sanitation systems offer the possibility of recycling nutrients present in wastewater as crop fertilisers. Thereby, they can reduce agriculture's impacts on global sources, sinks, and cycles for nitrogen and phosphorous, as well as their associated environmental costs. However, it has been broadly assumed that people would be reluctant to perform the new sanitation behaviours that are necessary for implementing such systems in practice. Yet, few studies have tried to systematically gather evidence in support of this assumption. To address this gap, we surveyed 3763 people at 20 universities in 16 countries using a standardised questionnaire. We identified and systematically assessed cross-cultural and country-level explanatory factors that were strongly associated with people's willingness to consume food grown using human urine as fertiliser. Overall, 68% of the respondents favoured recycling human urine, 59% stated a willingness to eat urine-fertilised food, and only 11% believed that urine posed health risks that could not be mitigated by treatment. Most people did not expect to pay less for urine-fertilised food, but only 15% were willing to pay a price premium. Consumer perceptions were found to differ greatly by country and the strongest predictive factors for acceptance overall were cognitive factors (perceptions of risks and benefits) and social norms. Increasing awareness and building trust among consumers about the effectiveness of new sanitation systems via cognitive and normative messaging can help increase acceptance. Based on our findings, we believe that in many countries, acceptance by food consumers will not be the major social barrier to closing the loop on human urine. That a potential market exists for urine-fertilised food, however, needs to be communicated to other stakeholders in the sanitation service chain.
As a major food crop, rice (Oryza sativa) is produced and consumed by nearly 90% of the population in Asia with less than 9% produced outside Asia. Hence, reports on large scale grain losses were alarming and resulted in a heightened awareness on the importance of rice plants' health and increased interest against phytopathogens in rice. To serve this interest, this review will provide a summary on bacterial rice pathogens, which can potentially be controlled by plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB). Additionally, this review highlights PGPB-mediated functional traits, including biocontrol of bacterial rice pathogens and enhancement of rice plant's growth. Currently, a plethora of recent studies address the use of PGPB to combat bacterial rice pathogens in an attempt to replace existing methods of chemical fertilizers and pesticides that often lead to environmental pollutions. As a tool to combat bacterial rice pathogens, PGPB presented itself as a promising alternative in improving rice plants' health and simultaneously controlling bacterial rice pathogens in vitro and in the field/greenhouse studies. PGPB, such as Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Enterobacter, Streptomyces, are now very well-known. Applications of PGPB as bioformulations are found to be effective in improving rice productivity and provide an eco-friendly alternative to agroecosystems.