Displaying publications 1 - 20 of 52 in total

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  1. Prall SP, Ambu L, Nathan S, Alsisto S, Ramirez D, Muehlenbein MP
    Am J Primatol, 2015 Jun;77(6):642-50.
    PMID: 25728599 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22387
    Despite the implications for the development of life-history traits, endocrine-immune trade-offs in apes are not well studied. This is due, in part, to difficulty in sampling wild primates, and lack of methods available for immune measures using samples collected noninvasively. Evidence for androgen-mediated immune trade-offs in orangutans is virtually absent, and very little is known regarding their pattern of adrenal development and production of adrenal androgens. To remedy both of these deficiencies, sera were collected from orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus morio) (N = 38) at the Sepilok Orangutan Rehabilitation Centre, Sabah, Malaysia, during routine health screenings. Testosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), and dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate (DHEA-S) were assayed, along with two measures of functional innate immunity. DHEA-S concentrations, but not DHEA, increased with age in this sample of 1-18 year old animals. DHEA concentrations were higher in animals with higher levels of serum bacteria killing ability, while DHEA-S and testosterone concentrations were higher in animals with reduced complement protein activity. Patterns of DHEA-S concentration in this sample are consistent with patterns of adrenarche observed in other apes. Results from this study suggest that in addition to testosterone, DHEA and DHEA-S may have potent effects on immunological activity in this species.
    Matched MeSH terms: Pongo pygmaeus/immunology*
  2. Kanamori T, Kuze N, Bernard H, Malim TP, Kohshima S
    Am J Primatol, 2010 Sep;72(9):820-40.
    PMID: 20653008 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.20848
    We observed the diet and activity of Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus morio) in the primary lowland dipterocarp forests of Danum Valley, Sabah, Malaysia, during 2005-2007, including two mast fruitings. We collected 1,785 hr of focal data on 26 orangutans. We identified 1,466 samples of their food plants and conducted a fallen fruit census to monitor fruit availability in the study area. Their activity budget was 47.2% feeding, 34.4% resting, and 16.9% traveling. Fruits accounted for the largest part (60.9%) of feeding time, especially during mast fruiting periods (64.0-100%), although the percentages of leaves (22.2%) and bark (12.3%) were higher than those reported for P. abelii and P. pygmaeus wurmbii. Although 119 genera and 160 plant species were consumed by focal animals, only 9 genera accounted for more than 3% of feeding time (total: 67.8% for 9 genera). In particular, the focal orangutans fed intensively on Ficus and Spatholobus during most of the study period, especially in periods of fruit shortage. The percentage of fruit feeding changed markedly from 11.7 to 100% across different months of the year, and was positively correlated with the amount of fallen fruit. When fruit feeding and availability decreased, orangutans fed primarily on leaves of Spatholobus and Ficus, and the bark of Spatholobus and dipterocarp. The percentage of time devoted to feeding during mast fruitings, when the orangutans foraged almost exclusively on fruits, was lower than during seasons when the orangutan diet included leaves and bark as well as fruits. Resting increased as feeding decreased in the late stage of each fruiting season, suggesting that the orangutans adopted an energy-minimizing strategy to survive the periods of fruit shortage by using energy stored during the fruit season.
    Matched MeSH terms: Pongo pygmaeus/physiology*
  3. Kuze N, Malim TP, Kohshima S
    Am J Primatol, 2005 Apr;65(4):353-76.
    PMID: 15834889
    Orangutans display remarkable developmental changes and sexual differences in facial morphology, such as the flanges or cheek-pads that develop only on the face of dominant adult males. These changes suggest that facial morphology is an important factor in visual communication. However, developmental changes in facial morphology have not been examined in detail. We studied developmental changes in the facial morphology of the Borneo orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) by observing 79 individuals of various ages living in the Sepilok Orangutan Rehabilitation Centre (SORC) in Malaysia and in Japanese zoos. We also analyzed photographs of one captive male that were taken over a period of more than 16 years. There were clear morphological changes that occurred with growth, and we identified previously unreported sexual and developmental differences in facial morphology. Light-colored skin around the eyes and mouth is most prominent in animals younger than 3 years, and rapidly decreases in area through the age of approximately 7 years. At the same time, the scattered, erect hairs on the head (infant hair) become thick, dense hairs lying on the head (adult hair) in both sexes. The results suggest that these features are infant signals, and that adult signals may include darkened face color, adult hair, whiskers, and a beard, which begin to develop after the age of approximately 7 years in both sexes. In females, the eyelids remain white even after 10 years, and turn black at around the age of 20; in males, the eyelids turn black before the age of 10. The whiskers and beards of adults are thicker in males than in females, and are fully developed before the age of 10 in males, while they begin to develop in females only after approximately 20 years. White eyelids and undeveloped whiskers and beards may be visual signals that are indicative of young adult females. Our results also show that the facial morphology of the unflanged male is similar to that of the adult female, although it has also been pointed out that unflanged males resemble younger individuals.
    Matched MeSH terms: Pongo pygmaeus/anatomy & histology*; Pongo pygmaeus/growth & development*
  4. Seaman DJI, Bernard H, Ancrenaz M, Coomes D, Swinfield T, Milodowski DT, et al.
    Am J Primatol, 2019 08;81(8):e23030.
    PMID: 31328289 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23030
    The conversion of forest to agriculture continues to contribute to the loss and fragmentation of remaining orang-utan habitat. There are still few published estimates of orang-utan densities in these heavily modified agricultural areas to inform range-wide population assessments and conservation strategies. In addition, little is known about what landscape features promote orang-utan habitat use. Using indirect nest count methods, we implemented surveys and estimated population densities of the Northeast Bornean orang-utan (Pongo pygmaeus morio) across the continuous logged forest and forest remnants in a recently salvage-logged area and oil palm plantations in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo. We then assessed the influence of landscape features and forest structural metrics obtained from LiDAR data on estimates of orang-utan density. Recent salvage logging appeared to have a little short-term effect on orang-utan density (2.35 ind/km 2 ), which remained similar to recovering logged forest nearby (2.32 ind/km 2 ). Orang-utans were also present in remnant forest patches in oil palm plantations, but at significantly lower numbers (0.82 ind/km 2 ) than nearby logged forest and salvage-logged areas. Densities were strongly influenced by variation in canopy height but were not associated with other potential covariates. Our findings suggest that orang-utans currently exist, at least in the short-term, within human-modified landscapes, providing that remnant forest patches remain. We urge greater recognition of the role that these degraded habitats can have in supporting orang-utan populations, and that future range-wide analyses and conservation strategies better incorporate data from human-modified landscapes.
    Matched MeSH terms: Pongo pygmaeus*
  5. Unwin S, Commitante R, Moss A, Bridges E, Farmer KH, Jaya RL, et al.
    Am J Primatol, 2021 May 21.
    PMID: 34018623 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23273
    One Health is increasingly being used as a tool in ecosystem protection. The Orangutan Veterinary Advisory Group (OVAG) is working to address One Health concerns in Pongo spp. (orangutan) welfare and conservation. Orangutans are vital contributors to the ecosystem health of their range areas. Strengthening national capacity is crucial to make a lasting difference in the currently bleak outlook for orangutan species survival. OVAG is a capacity strengthening and expertise network that brings together all those working with orangutans, in- and ex-situ, to share knowledge, skills, and to collectively learn. Using the One Health paradigm embedded to enhance professional development, the OVAG network is successfully supporting conservation outcomes and impact. As part of our adaptive management approach, and to assess individual and organizational change attributable to the capacity strengthening work of OVAG, we evaluated technical skill test data, program satisfaction data, and asked participants to complete a self-reflective survey. This pilot study of our work demonstrates statistically significant improvements in conservation medicine (t = 5.481, p 
    Matched MeSH terms: Pongo pygmaeus; Pongo
  6. Tamrin NAM, Zainudin R, Esa Y, Alias H, Isa MNM, Croft L, et al.
    Animals (Basel), 2020 Dec 10;10(12).
    PMID: 33321745 DOI: 10.3390/ani10122359
    Taste perception is an essential function that provides valuable dietary and sensory information, which is crucial for the survival of animals. Studies into the evolution of the sweet taste receptor gene (TAS1R2) are scarce, especially for Bornean endemic primates such as Nasalis larvatus (proboscis monkey), Pongo pygmaeus (Bornean orangutan), and Hylobates muelleri (Muller's Bornean gibbon). Primates are the perfect taxa to study as they are diverse dietary feeders, comprising specialist folivores, frugivores, gummivores, herbivores, and omnivores. We constructed phylogenetic trees of the TAS1R2 gene for 20 species of anthropoid primates using four different methods (neighbor-joining, maximum parsimony, maximum-likelihood, and Bayesian) and also established the time divergence of the phylogeny. The phylogeny successfully separated the primates into their taxonomic groups as well as by their dietary preferences. Of note, the reviewed time of divergence estimation for the primate speciation pattern in this study was more recent than the previously published estimates. It is believed that this difference may be due to environmental changes, such as food scarcity and climate change, during the late Miocene epoch, which forced primates to change their dietary preferences. These findings provide a starting point for further investigation.
    Matched MeSH terms: Pongo pygmaeus
  7. Meijaard E, Wich S, Ancrenaz M, Marshall AJ
    Ann N Y Acad Sci, 2012 Feb;1249:29-44.
    PMID: 22175247 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06288.x
    Orangutan survival is threatened by habitat loss and illegal killing. Most wild populations will disappear over the next few decades unless threats are abated. Saving orangutans is ultimately in the hands of the governments and people of Indonesia and Malaysia, which need to ensure that habitats of viable orangutan populations are protected from deforestation and well managed to ensure no hunting takes place. Companies working in orangutan habitat also have to play a much bigger role in habitat management. Although the major problems and the direct actions required to solve them-reducing forest loss and hunting-have been known for decades, orangutan populations continue to decline. Orangutan populations in Sumatra and Borneo have declined by between 2,280 and 5,250 orangutans annually over the past 25 years. As the total current population for the two species is some 60,000 animals in an area of about 90,000 km(2) , there is not much time left to make conservation efforts truly effective. Our review discusses what has and has not worked in conservation to guide future conservation efforts.
    Matched MeSH terms: Pongo pygmaeus; Pongo*; Pongo abelii
  8. Ampeng A, Liam J, Simpson B, Traelholt C, Md Nor S, Abdan-Saleman MSB, et al.
    Biodivers Data J, 2021;9:e60753.
    PMID: 33531863 DOI: 10.3897/BDJ.9.e60753
    Wildlife surveys were conducted in Usun Apau National Park (UANP), Sarawak from Oct 2017 to Oct 2020. This was the first attempt to document fauna diversity in Usun Apau National Park on the UANP plateau at 1200-1400 m a.s.l. On 17 September 2020, 10 AM, we observed an orangutan individual, Pongo pygmaeus, over a period of one minute at Libut Camp UANP (E: 114039'.546, N: 2052'36.44) at 1,020 m a.s.l. We also recorded four nests and orangutan vocalisation twice. This observation is important for Bornean orangutan conservation as this was the first orangutan sighting in UANP and well outside the species distribution range for in Sarawak.
    Matched MeSH terms: Pongo pygmaeus; Pongo
  9. Navin Ravi, Elvira Effie Juis, Michelle Maria Vincent, Rasyidah Shokri, Vinooshana R. Kannan, Izzudin Madin, et al.
    MyJurnal
    Palmaris longus (PL) tendon is regularly used in reconstructive surgeries as a donor tendon because it is observed as an accessory muscle and has little practical use to the human hands. It is only found in mammals. For example, the orangutan has PL but it is absent variable in the higher class of apes such as gorillas and chimpanzees. The absence of PL in humans appears to be hereditary, but the genetic transmission is unclear. The main objective of this study is to determine the prevalence of PL tendon absence in pre-clinical medical students of UMS and to compare the lack between gender and ethnic groups. By using standard Schaffer’s test, we examined the presence or absence of PL tendon among the first and second-year medical students of UMS. Four additional tests, Thompson’s test, Mishra’s test I, and II, Pushpakumar’s tests were used to determine whether PL present or not. A total of 134 volunteers were examined, and 91.8% were right-handed, and 8.2% were left-handed. The overall absence (bilateral and unilateral) of PL tendon was 23.9%, whereas unilateral absent was 17.9%, and bilateral absent was 6.0%. The high prevalence of absence of PL tendon among females 25.5% compared to males 20.0%. Chinese and Indian have a higher incidence of PL tendon absence followed by Kadazandusun and Malay. In this study, there were different figures for each ethnic group. The prevalence of absence of PL varies depending on the populations.
    Matched MeSH terms: Pongo
  10. Williams N
    Curr Biol, 2007 Apr 17;17(8):R261.
    PMID: 17486700
    Matched MeSH terms: Pongo pygmaeus*
  11. Meijaard E, Sherman J, Ancrenaz M, Wich SA, Santika T, Voigt M
    Curr Biol, 2018 11 05;28(21):R1241-R1242.
    PMID: 30399343 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2018.09.052
    A recent report, published by the Government of Indonesia with support from the Food and Agricultural Organization and Norway's International Climate and Forest Initiative, states that orangutan populations (Pongo spp.) have increased by more than 10% in Indonesia from 2015 to 2017, exceeding the government target of an annual 2% population increase [1]. This assessment is in strong contrast with recent publications that showed that the Bornean orangutan (P. pygmaeus) lost more than 100,000 individuals in the past 16 years [2] and declined by at least 25% over the past 10 years [3]. Furthermore, recent work has also demonstrated that both Sumatran orangutans (P. abelii) and the recently described Tapanuli orangutan (P. tapanuliensis) lost more than 60% of their key habitats between 1985 and 2007, and ongoing land use changes are expected to result in an 11-27% decline in their populations by 2020 [4,5]. Most scientific data indicate that the survival of these species continues to be seriously threatened by deforestation and killing [4,6,7] and thus all three are Critically Endangered under the International Union for Conservation of Nature's Red List.
    Matched MeSH terms: Pongo pygmaeus; Pongo abelii
  12. Nater A, Mattle-Greminger MP, Nurcahyo A, Nowak MG, de Manuel M, Desai T, et al.
    Curr Biol, 2017 Nov 20;27(22):3487-3498.e10.
    PMID: 29103940 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2017.09.047
    Six extant species of non-human great apes are currently recognized: Sumatran and Bornean orangutans, eastern and western gorillas, and chimpanzees and bonobos [1]. However, large gaps remain in our knowledge of fine-scale variation in hominoid morphology, behavior, and genetics, and aspects of great ape taxonomy remain in flux. This is particularly true for orangutans (genus: Pongo), the only Asian great apes and phylogenetically our most distant relatives among extant hominids [1]. Designation of Bornean and Sumatran orangutans, P. pygmaeus (Linnaeus 1760) and P. abelii (Lesson 1827), as distinct species occurred in 2001 [1, 2]. Here, we show that an isolated population from Batang Toru, at the southernmost range limit of extant Sumatran orangutans south of Lake Toba, is distinct from other northern Sumatran and Bornean populations. By comparing cranio-mandibular and dental characters of an orangutan killed in a human-animal conflict to those of 33 adult male orangutans of a similar developmental stage, we found consistent differences between the Batang Toru individual and other extant Ponginae. Our analyses of 37 orangutan genomes provided a second line of evidence. Model-based approaches revealed that the deepest split in the evolutionary history of extant orangutans occurred ∼3.38 mya between the Batang Toru population and those to the north of Lake Toba, whereas both currently recognized species separated much later, about 674 kya. Our combined analyses support a new classification of orangutans into three extant species. The new species, Pongo tapanuliensis, encompasses the Batang Toru population, of which fewer than 800 individuals survive. VIDEO ABSTRACT.
    Matched MeSH terms: Pongo pygmaeus/genetics; Pongo/classification; Pongo/genetics*; Pongo/physiology; Pongo abelii/genetics
  13. Voigt M, Wich SA, Ancrenaz M, Meijaard E, Abram N, Banes GL, et al.
    Curr Biol, 2018 03 05;28(5):761-769.e5.
    PMID: 29456144 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2018.01.053
    Unsustainable exploitation of natural resources is increasingly affecting the highly biodiverse tropics [1, 2]. Although rapid developments in remote sensing technology have permitted more precise estimates of land-cover change over large spatial scales [3-5], our knowledge about the effects of these changes on wildlife is much more sparse [6, 7]. Here we use field survey data, predictive density distribution modeling, and remote sensing to investigate the impact of resource use and land-use changes on the density distribution of Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus). Our models indicate that between 1999 and 2015, half of the orangutan population was affected by logging, deforestation, or industrialized plantations. Although land clearance caused the most dramatic rates of decline, it accounted for only a small proportion of the total loss. A much larger number of orangutans were lost in selectively logged and primary forests, where rates of decline were less precipitous, but where far more orangutans are found. This suggests that further drivers, independent of land-use change, contribute to orangutan loss. This finding is consistent with studies reporting hunting as a major cause in orangutan decline [8-10]. Our predictions of orangutan abundance loss across Borneo suggest that the population decreased by more than 100,000 individuals, corroborating recent estimates of decline [11]. Practical solutions to prevent future orangutan decline can only be realized by addressing its complex causes in a holistic manner across political and societal sectors, such as in land-use planning, resource exploitation, infrastructure development, and education, and by increasing long-term sustainability [12]. VIDEO ABSTRACT.
    Matched MeSH terms: Pongo pygmaeus/physiology*
  14. Singh B, Simon Divis PC
    Emerg Infect Dis, 2009 Oct;15(10):1657-8.
    PMID: 19861067 DOI: 10.3201/eid1510.090364
    After orangutans in Indonesia were reported as infected with Plasmodium cynomolgi and P. vivax, we conducted phylogenetic analyses of small subunit ribosomal RNA gene sequences of Plasmodium spp. We found that these orangutans are not hosts of P. cynomolgi and P. vivax. Analysis of >or=1 genes is needed to identify Plasmodium spp. infecting orangutans.
    Matched MeSH terms: Pongo*
  15. Rogers LJ, Kaplan G
    Folia Primatol., 1994;63(1):50-2.
    PMID: 7813972
    Matched MeSH terms: Pongo pygmaeus/physiology*
  16. Goossens B, Abdullah ZB, Sinyor JB, Ancrenaz M
    Folia Primatol., 2004 Jan-Feb;75(1):23-6.
    PMID: 14716150
    Matched MeSH terms: Pongo pygmaeus*
  17. Chong CW, Alkatheeri AHS, Ali N, Tay ZH, Lee YL, Paramasivam SJ, et al.
    Gut Pathog, 2020;12:14.
    PMID: 32175011 DOI: 10.1186/s13099-020-00352-x
    Background: The rise of nature-based ecotourism in the past decade has introduced unprecedented challenges in managing the increasing interaction between humans and animals. The potential transmission of antibiotic resistant microbes between humans and non-human primate populations is a concern due to their genetic similarity. Malaysia is well known for hotspots of wildlife diversity where non-human primates like monkeys and orangutans have become popular tourist attractions. In this study, we assessed the prevalence of antimicrobial resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus species, and other Enterobacteriaceae in the faeces of human (HS) and two non-human primates (NHP) in Malaysia, the Long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis, MF) and Silvered leaf monkey (Trachypithecus cristatus, TC). In addition, the faecal bacterial composition was profiled to evaluate the potential association between antibiotic resistant profiles and composition of gut microbiota.

    Results: We tested the isolated bacteria using a selection of antibiotics. The results showed that both the number of antibiotic resistant strains and resistance level were higher in humans than NHPs. Overall, the composition of gut microbiome and pattern of antibiotic resistance showed that there was higher similarity between MF and TC, the two NHPs, than with HS. In addition, samples with higher levels of antibiotic resistance showed lower bacterial richness. Homo sapiens had the lowest bacterial diversity and yet it had higher abundance of Bacteroides. In contrast, NHPs displayed higher bacterial richness and greater prevalence of Firmicutes such as Ruminococceae and Oscillospira.

    Conclusion: Higher antibiotic susceptibility in NHPs is likely related to low direct exposure to antibiotics. The lack of resistance may also suggest limited antimicrobial resistance transmission between humans and NHP. Nonetheless, continued monitoring over a long period will help mitigate the risk of anthropozoonosis and zooanthroponosis.

    Matched MeSH terms: Pongo
  18. Kamaluddin SN, Matsuda I, Md-Zain BM
    J Appl Anim Welf Sci, 2021 Apr 10.
    PMID: 33843367 DOI: 10.1080/10888705.2021.1910032
    Assessments of the welfare status of captive and semi-captive animals often compare how their expression of natural behaviors differs from that of free-ranging conspecifics. From December 2015-2016, we recorded and analyzed the activity budget and postural behaviors of three orangutans in Bukit Merah Orang Utan Island (BMOUI) to evaluate their welfare status. The orangutans' activity budget was dominated by resting (60%), feeding (13%), playing (14%), and moving (9%). Behavioral categories followed a similar trend: resting > feeding > moving > playing, except that the subadult male spent significantly more time playing than the two adults. The most predominant posture was sitting (47.0%), followed by pronograde standing (29.4%), lying (10.5%), and clinging (4.5%). Our results suggest that orangutans on BMOUI engage in less feeding but more resting, and show less postural diversity than free-ranging individuals. We propose that appropriate interventions to shift activity budgets, especially feeding vs. resting, and postural behaviors of captive orangutans toward those found in free-ranging orangutans might be beneficial for their welfare and survival.
    Matched MeSH terms: Pongo pygmaeus; Pongo
  19. Takeshita RSC, Mendonça RS, Bercovitch FB, Huffman MA
    PMID: 31549180 DOI: 10.1007/s00360-019-01235-7
    Non-invasive measures of stress are crucial for captive and conservation management programs. The adrenal hormone dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate (DHEAS) has recently been adopted as a stress marker, but there is little investigation of its relationship to glucocorticoids (GC), well-known indicators of stress. This study examined the influence of age, reproductive state and environment on GC and DHEAS levels in orangutans, to test whether the GC/DHEAS ratio can provide an index of stress response in primates. We measured fecal GC (fGC) and fecal DHEAS (fDHEAS) concentrations in 7 captive orangutans from zoological parks in Japan and 22 wild orangutans from Danum Valley Conservation Area, Malaysia. We found that in a stressful condition (transportation), fDHEAS levels increased 2 days after the fGC response, which occurred 1 day after the stressor. One pregnant female had elevated levels of both hormones, and a higher fGC/fDHEAS ratio than baseline. Females in the first year of lactation had fGC levels and the fGC/fDHEAS ratio significantly higher than both baseline and females in the second and subsequent years of lactation. There was no effect of age on fGC levels, but the fGC/fDHEAS ratio was higher in infants than adults and adolescents. fDHEAS concentrations were lower in infants than juveniles, adolescents and adults, a phenomenon known as adrenarche, shared with humans and other great apes. We suggest that changes in DHEAS during orangutan life history are associated with changes in the dynamics of maintaining homeostasis that vary with age and reproductive state. The GC/DHEAS ratio index is useful to evaluate age-related abilities of responding to stressful challenges.
    Matched MeSH terms: Pongo pygmaeus/growth & development*; Pongo pygmaeus/physiology
  20. van Noordwijk MA, Utami Atmoko SS, Knott CD, Kuze N, Morrogh-Bernard HC, Oram F, et al.
    J Hum Evol, 2018 12;125:38-49.
    PMID: 30502896 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2018.09.004
    Orangutans (Pongo spp.) are reported to have extremely slow life histories, including the longest average interbirth intervals of all mammals. Such slow life history can be viable only when unavoidable mortality is kept low. Thus, orangutans' survivorship under natural conditions is expected to be extremely high. Previous estimates of orangutan life history were based on captive individuals living under very different circumstances or on small samples from wild populations. Here, we combine birth data from seven field sites, each with demographic data collection for at least 10 years (range 12-43 years) on wild orangutans to better document their life history. Using strict criteria for data inclusion, we calculated infant survival, interbirth intervals and female age at first reproduction, across species, subspecies and islands. We found an average closed interbirth interval of 7.6 years, as well as consistently very high pre-weaning survival for males and females. Female survival of 94% until age at first birth (at around age 15 years) was higher than reported for any other mammal species under natural conditions. Similarly, annual survival among parous females is very high, but longevity remains to be estimated. Current data suggest no major life history differences between Sumatran and Bornean orangutans. The high offspring survival is remarkable, noting that modern human populations seem to have reached the same level of survival only in the 20th century. The orangutans' slow life history illustrates what can be achieved if a hominoid bauplan is exposed to low unavoidable mortality. Their high survival is likely due to their arboreal and non-gregarious lifestyle, and has allowed them to maintain viable populations, despite living in low-productivity habitats. However, their slow life history also implies that orangutans are highly vulnerable to a catastrophic population crash in the face of drastic habitat change.
    Matched MeSH terms: Pongo pygmaeus/physiology*; Pongo abelii
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