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  1. Peksheva O, Kuzovatova E, Parfenova O, Zaytseva N
    Viruses, 2022 Aug 27;14(9).
    PMID: 36146704 DOI: 10.3390/v14091898
    The increasing number of HIV-infected people who are receiving ART, including those with low adherence, is causing the spread of HIV drug resistance (DR). A total of 1396 plasma samples obtained from treatment-experienced patients from the Volga federal district (VFD), Russia, were examined to investigate HIV DR occurrence. The time periods 2008−2015 and 2016−2019 were compared. Fragmentary Sanger sequencing was employed to identify HIV resistance to reverse transcriptase inhibitors (RTIs) and protease inhibitors (PIs) using an ABI 3500XL genetic analyzer, a ViroSeq™ HIV-1 genotyping system (Alameda, CA, USA) and AmpliSense HIV-Resist-Seq reagent kits (Moscow, Russia). In 2016−2019, HIV DR was detected significantly more often than in 2008−2015 (p < 0.01). Mutations to RTIs retained leading positions in the structure of DR. Frequencies of resistance mutations to nucleoside and non-nucleoside RTIs (NRTIs and NNRTIs) in the spectra of detected mutations show no significant differences. Resistance to NRTIs after 2016 began to be registered more often as a part of multidrug resistance (MDR), as opposed to resistance to a single class of antiretrovirals. The frequency of DR mutations to PIs was low, both before and after 2016 (7.9% and 6.1% in the spectrum, respectively, p > 0.05). MDR registration rate became significantly higher from 2008 to 2019 (17.1% to 72.7% of patients, respectively, p < 0.01). M184V was the dominant replacement in all the years of study. A significant increase in the frequency of K65R replacement was revealed. The prevalence of integrase strand transfer inhibitor (INSTI) resistance mutations remains to be investigated.
    Matched MeSH terms: Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors/therapeutic use
  2. Sudjaritruk T, Teeraananchai S, Kariminia A, Lapphra K, Kumarasamy N, Fong MS, et al.
    J Int AIDS Soc, 2020 07;23(7):e25550.
    PMID: 32628816 DOI: 10.1002/jia2.25550
    INTRODUCTION: The clinical relevance of low-level viraemia (LLV) and virological outcomes among children living with HIV (CLHIV) remains controversial. This study aimed to determine the impact of LLV on virological failure (VF) among Asian CLHIV on first-line combination antiretroviral therapy (cART).

    METHODS: CLHIV aged <18 years, who were on first-line cART for ≥12 months, and had virological suppression (two consecutive plasma viral load [pVL] <50 copies/mL) were included. Those who started treatment with mono/dual antiretroviral therapy, had a history of treatment interruption >14 days, or received treatment and care at sites with a pVL lower limit of detection >50 copies/mL were excluded. LLV was defined as a pVL 50 to 1000 copies/mL, and VF as a single pVL >1000 copies/mL. Baseline was the time of the second pVL 

    Matched MeSH terms: Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors/therapeutic use
  3. Han WM, Law MG, Choi JY, Ditangco R, Kumarasamy N, Chaiwarith R, et al.
    HIV Med, 2022 Mar;23(3):274-286.
    PMID: 34816562 DOI: 10.1111/hiv.13211
    OBJECTIVES: We investigated weight changes following antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation, the development of metabolic syndrome (MetS) and its association with all-cause mortality among Asian adults living with HIV.

    METHODS: Participants enrolled in a regional Asian HIV-infected cohort with weight and height measurements at ART initiation were eligible for inclusion in the analysis. Factors associated with weight changes and incident MetS (according to the International Diabetic Federation (IDF) definition) were analysed using linear mixed models and Cox regression, respectively. Competing-risk regression models were used to investigate the association of MetS with all-cause mortality.

    RESULTS: Among 4931 people living with HIV (PLWH), 66% were male. At ART initiation, the median age was 34 [interquartile range (IQR) 29-41] years, and the median (IQR) weight and body mass index (BMI) were 55 (48-63) kg and 20.5 (18.4-22.9) kg/m2 , respectively. At 1, 2 and 3 years of ART, overall mean (± standard deviation) weight gain was 2.2 (±5.3), 3.0 (±6.2) and 3.7 (±6.5) kg, respectively. Participants with baseline CD4 count ≤ 200 cells/µL [weight difference (diff) = 2.2 kg; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.9-2.5 kg] and baseline HIV RNA ≥ 100 000 HIV-1 RNA copies/mL (diff = 0.6 kg; 95% CI 0.2-1.0 kg), and those starting with integrase strand transfer inhibitor (INSTI)-based ART (diff = 2.1 kg; 95% CI 0.7-3.5 kg vs. nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors) had greater weight gain. After exclusion of those with abnormal baseline levels of MetS components, 295/3503 had incident MetS [1.18 (95% CI 1.05-1.32)/100 person-years (PY)]. The mortality rate was 0.7 (95% CI 0.6-0.8)/100 PY. MetS was not significantly associated with all-cause mortality in the adjusted model (P = 0.236).

    CONCLUSIONS: Weight gain after ART initiation was significantly higher among those initiating ART with lower CD4 count, higher HIV RNA and an INSTI-based regimen after controlling for baseline BMI. Greater efforts to identify and manage MetS among PLWH are needed.

    Matched MeSH terms: Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors/therapeutic use
  4. Boyd MA, Amin J, Mallon PW, Kumarasamy N, Lombaard J, Wood R, et al.
    Lancet HIV, 2017 01;4(1):e13-e20.
    PMID: 27815068 DOI: 10.1016/S2352-3018(16)30189-8
    BACKGROUND: Lipoatrophy is one of the most feared complications associated with the use of nucleoside or nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (N[t]RTIs). We aimed to assess soft-tissue changes in participants with HIV who had virological failure of a first-line antiretroviral (ART) regimen containing a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor plus two N(t)RTIs and were randomly assigned to receive a second-line regimen containing a boosted protease inhibitor given with either N(t)RTIs or raltegravir.

    METHODS: Of the 37 sites that participated in the randomised, open-label, non-inferiority SECOND-LINE study, eight sites from five countries (Argentina, India, Malaysia, South Africa, and Thailand) participated in the body composition substudy. All sites had a dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scanner and all participants enrolled in SECOND-LINE were eligible for inclusion in the substudy. Participants were randomly assigned (1:1), via a computer-generated allocation schedule, to receive either ritonavir-boosted lopinavir plus raltegravir (raltegravir group) or ritonavir-boosted lopinavir plus two or three N(t)RTIs (N[t]RTI group). Randomisation was stratified by site and screening HIV-1 RNA. Participants and investigators were not masked to group assignment, but allocation was concealed until after interventions were assigned. DXA scans were done at weeks 0, 48, and 96. The primary endpoint was mean percentage and absolute change in peripheral limb fat from baseline to week 96. We did intention-to-treat analyses of available data. This substudy is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT01513122.

    FINDINGS: Between Aug 1, 2010, and July 10, 2011, we recruited 211 participants into the substudy. The intention-to-treat population comprised 102 participants in the N(t)RTI group and 108 participants in the raltegravir group, of whom 91 and 105 participants, respectively, reached 96 weeks. Mean percentage change in limb fat from baseline to week 96 was 16·8% (SD 32·6) in the N(t)RTI group and 28·0% (37·6) in the raltegravir group (mean difference 10·2%, 95% CI 0·1-20·4; p=0·048). Mean absolute change was 1·04 kg (SD 2·29) in the N(t)RTI group and 1·81 kg (2·50) in the raltegravir group (mean difference 0·6, 95% CI -0·1 to 1·3; p=0·10).

    INTERPRETATION: Our findings suggest that for people with virological failure of a first-line regimen containing efavirenz plus tenofovir and lamivudine or emtricitabine, the WHO-recommended switch to a ritonavir-boosted protease inhibitor plus zidovudine (a thymidine analogue nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor) and lamivudine might come at the cost of peripheral lipoatrophy. Further study could help to define specific groups of people who might benefit from a switch to an N(t)RTI-sparing second-line ART regimen.

    FUNDING: The Kirby Institute and the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council.

    Matched MeSH terms: Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors/therapeutic use*
  5. Leung N
    Med J Malaysia, 2005 Jul;60 Suppl B:22-7.
    PMID: 16108169
    Nucleot(s)ide analogues are making milestones in the treatment of chronic hepatitis B (CHB) as safe oral therapy. FDA approved lamivudine in adult patients in 1998, adefovir dipivoxil in 2002, and entecavir in March 2005. Lamivudine is effective in viral suppression, ALT normalization, and improvement in histology in both HBeAg positive and HBeAg negative / HBV DNA positive patients. HBeAg seroconversion rates correlate directly with pretreatment ALT levels at 18-30% after one year of therapy. Hepatitis flares may occur if lamivudine is stopped before HBeAg seroconversion. Lamivudine resistant YMDD mutants emerge at a rate of 15-20% per year of therapy; often associated with the rebound viraemia, relapse of hepatitis or even hepatic decompensation. Durability of response off lamivudine therapy is not satisfactory and may be dependent on duration of therapy post-seroconversion. Lamivudine is well tolerated with few serious adverse events, even in patients with decompensated cirrhosis. Long term therapy in viraemic patients with advanced fibrosis or cirrhosis delays clinical progression. Adefovir dipivoxil is an oral prodrug of adefovir. 10 mg daily is effective in suppressing both wild-type HBV and YMDD mutants, normalising ALT and improving histology. Adefovir dipivoxil has been shown to be well tolerated in longterm therapy. Renal toxicity reported in higher dosages is rarely seen except among patients with creatinine clearance less than 50 ml/min. Adefovir resistance may emerge and the overall rate is much lower than lamivudine, reaching 18% after 4 years of therapy. Adefovir-resistant mutants (rt N236T) are susceptible to lamivudine and entecavir. Little data is available for durability of response off therapy. Entecavir is an oral nucleoside analogue with a recommended dosage of 0.5 mg daily for nucleoside-naive patients, and 1 mg daily for lamivudine-refractory patients. It is a potent antiviral and may also reduced intrahepatitic cccDNA. Entecavir resistance so far has only been detected in lamivudine resistant patients in the one-year studies. Patient counseling is very important to decide on the choice among available therapeutic options. The assessment of the risks/benefits of each option should be carefully explained to individual patient.
    Matched MeSH terms: Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors/therapeutic use*
  6. Boettiger DC, Kerr S, Ditangco R, Merati TP, Pham TT, Chaiwarith R, et al.
    PLoS One, 2014;9(9):e106525.
    PMID: 25184314 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0106525
    Antiretroviral therapy (ART) has evolved rapidly since its beginnings. This analysis describes trends in first-line ART use in Asia and their impact on treatment outcomes.
    Matched MeSH terms: Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors/therapeutic use*
  7. Lau GK
    Med J Malaysia, 2005 Jul;60 Suppl B:57-62.
    PMID: 16108175
    Matched MeSH terms: Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors/therapeutic use*
  8. Boettiger DC, Sudjaritruk T, Nallusamy R, Lumbiganon P, Rungmaitree S, Hansudewechakul R, et al.
    J Adolesc Health, 2016 Apr;58(4):451-459.
    PMID: 26803201 DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.11.006
    PURPOSE: About a third of untreated, perinatally HIV-infected children reach adolescence. We evaluated the durability and effectiveness of non-nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI)-based antiretroviral therapy (ART) in this population.

    METHODS: Data from perinatally HIV-infected, antiretroviral-naïve patients initiated on NNRTI-based ART aged 10-19 years who had ≥6 months of follow-up were analyzed. Competing risk regression was used to assess predictors of NNRTI substitution and clinical failure (World Health Organization Stage 3/4 event or death). Viral suppression was defined as a viral load <400 copies/mL.

    RESULTS: Data from 534 adolescents met our inclusion criteria (56.2% female; median age at treatment initiation 11.8 years). After 5 years of treatment, median height-for-age z score increased from -2.3 to -1.6, and median CD4+ cell count increased from 131 to 580 cells/mm(3). The proportion of patients with viral suppression after 6 months was 87.6% and remained >80% up to 5 years of follow-up. NNRTI substitution and clinical failure occurred at rates of 4.9 and 1.4 events per 100 patient-years, respectively. Not using cotrimoxazole prophylaxis at ART initiation was associated with NNRTI substitution (hazard ratio [HR], 1.5 vs. using; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.0-2.2; p = .05). Baseline CD4+ count ≤200 cells/mm(3) (HR, 3.3 vs. >200; 95% CI = 1.2-8.9; p = .02) and not using cotrimoxazole prophylaxis at ART initiation (HR, 2.1 vs. using; 95% CI = 1.0-4.6; p = .05) were both associated with clinical failure.

    CONCLUSIONS: Despite late ART initiation, adolescents achieved good rates of catch-up growth, CD4+ count recovery, and virological suppression. Earlier ART initiation and routine cotrimoxazole prophylaxis in this population may help to reduce current rates of NNRTI substitution and clinical failure.

    Matched MeSH terms: Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors/therapeutic use*
  9. Kim JH, Jiamsakul A, Kiertiburanakul S, Huy BV, Khusuwan S, Kumarasamy N, et al.
    PLoS One, 2022;17(3):e0264157.
    PMID: 35353840 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0264157
    The use of holding regimens for people living with HIV (PLWH) without effective antiretroviral options can have effects on outcomes and future treatment options. We aimed to investigate the use of holding regimens for PLWH in Asian countries. Data from adults enrolled in routine HIV care in IeDEA Asia-Pacific cohorts were included. Individuals were considered to be on holding regimen if they had been on combination antiretroviral therapy for at least 6 months, had two confirmed viral loads (VL) ≥1000 copies/mL, and had remained on the same medications for at least 6 months. Survival time was analyzed using Fine and Gray's competing risk regression. Factors associated with CD4 changes and VL <1000 copies/mL were analyzed using linear regression and logistic regression, respectively. A total of 425 PLWH (72.9% male; 45.2% high-income and 54.8% low-to-middle-income country) met criteria for being on a holding regimen. From high-income countries, 63.0% were on protease inhibitors (PIs); from low-to-middle-income countries, 58.4% were on non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs); overall, 4.5% were on integrase inhibitors. The combination of lamivudine, zidovudine, and efavirenz was the most commonly used single regimen (n = 46, 10.8%), followed by lamivudine, zidovudine, and nevirapine (n = 37, 8.7%). Forty-one PLWH (9.7%) died during follow-up (mortality rate 2.0 per 100 person-years). Age >50 years compared to age 31-40 years (sub-hazard ratio [SHR] 3.29, 95% CI 1.45-7.43, p = 0.004), and VL ≥1000 copies/ml compared to VL <1000 copies/mL (SHR, 2.14, 95% CI 1.08-4.25, p = 0.029) were associated with increased mortality, while higher CD4 counts were protective. In our Asia regional cohort, there was a diversity of holding regimens, and the patterns of PI vs. NNRTI use differed by country income levels. Considering the high mortality rate of PLWH with holding regimen, efforts to extend accessibility to additional antiretroviral options are needed in our region.
    Matched MeSH terms: Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors/therapeutic use
  10. Hanna L
    BETA, 1999 Apr;12(2):8-9.
    PMID: 11366704
    Matched MeSH terms: Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors/therapeutic use*
  11. Cain LE, Phillips A, Lodi S, Sabin C, Bansi L, Justice A, et al.
    AIDS, 2012 Aug 24;26(13):1691-705.
    PMID: 22546987
    OBJECTIVE: To compare regimens consisting of either efavirenz or nevirapine and two or more nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) among HIV-infected, antiretroviral-naive, and AIDS-free individuals with respect to clinical, immunologic, and virologic outcomes.

    DESIGN: Prospective studies of HIV-infected individuals in Europe and the US included in the HIV-CAUSAL Collaboration.

    METHODS: Antiretroviral therapy-naive and AIDS-free individuals were followed from the time they started an NRTI, efavirenz or nevirapine, classified as following one or both types of regimens at baseline, and censored when they started an ineligible drug or at 6 months if their regimen was not yet complete. We estimated the 'intention-to-treat' effect for nevirapine versus efavirenz regimens on clinical, immunologic, and virologic outcomes. Our models included baseline covariates and adjusted for potential bias introduced by censoring via inverse probability weighting.

    RESULTS: A total of 15 336 individuals initiated an efavirenz regimen (274 deaths, 774 AIDS-defining illnesses) and 8129 individuals initiated a nevirapine regimen (203 deaths, 441 AIDS-defining illnesses). The intention-to-treat hazard ratios [95% confidence interval (CI)] for nevirapine versus efavirenz regimens were 1.59 (1.27, 1.98) for death and 1.28 (1.09, 1.50) for AIDS-defining illness. Individuals on nevirapine regimens experienced a smaller 12-month increase in CD4 cell count by 11.49 cells/μl and were 52% more likely to have virologic failure at 12 months as those on efavirenz regimens.

    CONCLUSIONS: Our intention-to-treat estimates are consistent with a lower mortality, a lower incidence of AIDS-defining illness, a larger 12-month increase in CD4 cell count, and a smaller risk of virologic failure at 12 months for efavirenz compared with nevirapine.

    Matched MeSH terms: Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors/therapeutic use*
  12. Guan R
    Med J Malaysia, 2005 Jul;60 Suppl B:52-6.
    PMID: 16108174
    In the Asia Pacific region Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is often acquired in individuals already infected with hepatitis B virus (HBV). The immune suppression caused by HIV infection reduces cellular immune response against HBV and liver inflammation may improve, but the risk of developing cirrhosis is not. HBV infection does not affect the progression of HIV disease. Anti-retroviral agents may be directly hepatotoxic and cause ALT elevations in patients with chronic hepatitis. Highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART) improves immunity and as cytotoxic lymphocyte responses improve, hepatitis flares can occur, usually r within 3 months of initiation of HAART. These hepatitis flares may be followed by normalization of ALT and clearance of HBVDNA. If lamivudine is included in the HAART regime, hepatitis flares may not occur till late and these late flares signal the development of lamivudine resistant HBV strains (90% of HBV/HIV co-infection). Treatment options for chronic HBV infection include interferon (IFN), and nucleoside analogues. Lamivudine, adefovir dipivoxil, tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (DF) are nucleoside analogues with activity against both HBVDNA polymerase and HIV reverse transcriptase. The latter two compounds have added activity against lamivudine resistant HBVDNA. Lamivudine should be avoided in the initial treatment of both hepatitis B as well as HIV because of the high incidence of resistance. Interferon should be considered first for treatment of HBV in HIV co-infected individuals and is usually unsuccessful in the later stages of HIV infection when immune suppression is extreme. As new and improved agents in HAART continue to prolong survival, the use of liver transplantation for cirrhotic patients co-infected with HIV and HBV may increase.
    Matched MeSH terms: Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors/therapeutic use*
  13. Gane E
    Med J Malaysia, 2005 Jul;60 Suppl B:88-9.
    PMID: 16108183
    Matched MeSH terms: Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors/therapeutic use
  14. Papot E, Jacoby S, Arlinda D, Avihingsanon A, Azwa I, Borok M, et al.
    HIV Res Clin Pract, 2022 Jul 19;23(1):37-46.
    PMID: 35938597
    A rapidly changing landscape of antiretrovirals and their procurement at scale has permitted the evaluation of new optimised second-line antiretroviral therapy (ART) in low- and middle-income countries. D2EFT is an open-label randomised controlled non-inferiority phase IIIB/IV trial in people living with HIV-1 (PWH) whose first-line non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI)-based ART is failing. At inception, it compared a standard of care of boosted darunavir with two nucleos(t)ide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) to the novel NRTI-sparing regimen of boosted darunavir with dolutegravir. Implemented in 2017, participating sites were across Africa, Asia and Latin America. Around the time of implementation, the World Health Organization updated its treatment guidelines and recommended scaling up tenofovir disoproxil fumarate-lamivudine-dolutegravir (TLD). This situation pushed D2EFT investigators to consider the impact of the roll-out of TLD on the D2EFT research question. The protocol team agreed it was important to study TLD in second-line when an NNRTI regimen was failing, and focused on options to expedite the work by studying the question within the existing trial and network. All key issues (statistical, programmatic and financial) were reviewed to assess the benefits and risks of adding a third arm to the ongoing study, as opposed to developing a new randomised clinical trial with the same control arm and within the same network. The development of a new trial was deemed to be longer than adding a third arm, and to create a challenging situation with two competing clinical trials at the same sites which would slow down recruitment and impair both trials. On the other hand, adding a third arm would be demanding in terms of operationalisation, increased sample size and statistical biases to control. The optimal strategy was deemed to be the addition of a third arm, arriving retrospectively at a simplified multi-arm multi-stage clinical trial design to achieve statistical validity. The D2EFT study maintains additional value in a quickly evolving second-line ART strategy allowed by the progress in global access to ART.
    Matched MeSH terms: Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors/therapeutic use
  15. Azzman N, Gill MSA, Hassan SS, Christ F, Debyser Z, Mohamed WAS, et al.
    Rev Med Virol, 2024 Mar;34(2):e2529.
    PMID: 38520650 DOI: 10.1002/rmv.2529
    The discovery of anti-retroviral (ARV) drugs over the past 36 years has introduced various classes, including nucleoside/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors, non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, protease inhibitor, fusion, and integrase strand transfer inhibitors inhibitors. The introduction of combined highly active anti-retroviral therapies in 1996 was later proven to combat further ARV drug resistance along with enhancing human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) suppression. As though the development of ARV therapies was continuously expanding, the variation of action caused by ARV drugs, along with its current updates, was not comprehensively discussed, particularly for HIV-1 infection. Thus, a range of HIV-1 ARV medications is covered in this review, including new developments in ARV therapy based on the drug's mechanism of action, the challenges related to HIV-1, and the need for combination therapy. Optimistically, this article will consolidate the overall updates of HIV-1 ARV treatments and conclude the significance of HIV-1-related pharmacotherapy research to combat the global threat of HIV infection.
    Matched MeSH terms: Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors/therapeutic use
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