This study was aimed to investigate the chemical compositions of the essential oils from Goniothalamus macrophyllus and Goniothalamus malayanus growing in Malaysia. The essential oils were obtained by hydrodistillation and fully characterized by gas chromatography (GC-FID) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Analyses of the essential oils from G. macrophyllus and G. malayanus resulted in 93.6 and 95.4% of the total oils, respectively. The major components of G. macrophyllus oil were germacrene D (25.1%), bicyclogermacrene (11.6%), α-copaene (6.9%) and δ-cadinene (6.4%), whereas in G. malayanus oil bicyclogermacrene (43.9%), germacrene D (21.1%) and β-elemene (8.4%) were the most abundant components.
The rich and diversified Malaysian flora represents an excellent resource of new chemical structures with biological activities. The genus Xylopia L. includes aromatic plants that have both nutritional and medicinal uses. This study aims to contribute with information about the volatile components of three Xylopia species essential oils: Xylopia frutescens, Xylopia ferruginea, and Xylopia magna. In this study, essential oils were extracted from the leaves by a hydrodistillation process. The identification of the essential oil components was performed by gas chromatography (GC-FID) and gas chromatography-coupled mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The major components of the essential oils from X. frutescens were bicyclogermacrene (22.8%), germacrene D (14.2%), elemol (12.8%), and guaiol (12.8%), whereas components of the essential oils from X. magna were germacrene D (35.9%), bicyclogermacrene (22.8%), and spathulenol (11.1%). The X. ferruginea oil was dominated by bicyclogermacrene (23.6%), elemol (13.7%), guaiol (13.4%), and germacrene D (12.3%).
The present study was carried out to establish the antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory properties of Dicranopteris linearis leaves chloroform extract in experimental animals. The antinociceptive activity was measured using the abdominal constriction, formalin and hot plate tests, while the anti-inflammatory activity was measured using the carrageenan-induced paw edema. The extract, obtained after 72 h soaking of the air-dried leaves in chloroform followed by evaporation under vacuo (40 degrees C) to dryness, was dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide to the doses of 20, 100 and 200 mg/kg and administered subcutaneously 30 min prior to subjection to the above mentioned assays. The extract, at all doses used, was found to exhibit significant (p<0.05) antinociceptive activity in a dose-dependent manner. However, the significant (p<0.05) anti-inflammatory activity observed occur in a dose-independent manner. As a conclusion, the chloroform extract of D. linearis possesses antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activity and thus justify its traditional uses by the Malays to treat various ailments.
The leaves of a tropical plant, Mitragyna speciosa Korth. (Rubiaceae), have been traditionally used as a substitute for opium. By phytochemical studies on the constituents of the plant growing in Thailand as well as in Malaysia, several 9-methoxy-Corynanthe-type monoterpenoid indole alkaloids including new natural products were isolated. The structures of these new compounds were elucidated by the modern spectroscopic methods and/or chiral-total syntheses. The chiral total synthesis of (-)-mitragynine, a major component of this plant, was achieved. Potent opioid agonistic properties of mitragynine, which acts on mu- and delta-opioid subtype receptors, and of mitragynine pseudoindoxyl, whose analgesic activity is more potent than that of morphine, were clarified in in vitro experiments. The essential structural features in mitragynine for revealing the analgesic activity were elucidated by pharmacological evaluation of the natural and synthetic mitragynine derivatives.
Parasitic nematodes are among the most common and economically important infectious diseases of grazing livestock, especially in small ruminants in the tropics and subtropics in Kenya the control of gastrointestinal nematode infections in sheep and goats is usually made with synthetic anthelmintics but substantial levels of anthelmintic resistance have been recorded. A number of medicinal plants, that may provide possible alternatives, and are used by pastoralists and smallholder farmers in Kenya as deworming agents for their livestock and equines, namely Aframomum sanguineum, Dodonea angustifolia, Hildebrandtia sepalosa, Myrsine africana, Rapanea melanophloeos from Kenya, and Azadirachta indica from Kenya and Malaysia, together with the chemicals embelin and santonin that occur in some of these plants, were evaluated against Heligmosomoides polygyrus in mice. Commercial anthelmintics, namely ivermectin, pyrantel and piperazine, were also investigated, both to validate the mouse model system and to assess efficacy of these drugs against H. polygyrus. Pyrantel and ivermectin were highly effective in reducing the numbers of H. polygyrus worms as well as eggs in faeces of the mice, but piperazine had a lower activity. Application of santonin and M. africana significantly reduced the number of total worm counts (TWC) but not faecal egg counts (FEC). The use of embelin, R. melanophloeos and A. indica reduced FEC but not TWC. In all cases, however, reductions were well below the a priori level of 70% required for biological significance. A. sanguineum, D. angustifolia and H. sepalosa had no effect on either TWC or FEC. In conclusion, none of the plant preparations had any biologically significant anthelmintic effect in this monogastric host-parasite model system.
The antibacterial activity of Vernonia cinerea (L.) extract was investigated using the broth dilution method. The extract showed a favorable antimicrobial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa with a minimum inhibition concentration (MIC) value of 3.13 mg/mL. V. cinerea extract at (1/2), 1, or 2 times the MIC significantly inhibited bacterial growth with a noticeable drop in optical density (OD) of the bacterial culture, thus confirming the antibacterial activity of the extract on P. aeruginosa. Imaging using scanning (SEM) and transmission (TEM) electron microscopy was done to determine the major alterations in the microstructure of the extract-treated P. aeruginosa. The main abnormalities noted via SEM and TEM studies were the alteration in morphology of the bacterial cells. The main reason for this destruction was the severe alterations of the cell wall with the formation of holes, invaginations, and morphological disorganization caused by the extract. The authors conclude that the extract may be used as a candidate for the development of antimicrobial agents.
An antiplasmodial screening of Phyllanthus debilis and Phyllanthus urinaria was carried out. The medicinal plants were extracted and evaluated for in vitro antiplasmodial activity against D10 (chloroquine-sensitive, CQS) and Gombak A (chloroquine-resistant, CQR) strains of Plasmodium falciparum. The methanolic crudes from the soxhlet extraction were active against both strains however, P. urinaria (IC50 8.9 μg/ml with CQR strain) exhibited better anti-malarial activity compared to P. debilis (IC50 12.2 μg/ml with CQR strain). Furthermore, the methanolic crude of P. urinaria obtained by the cold extraction has good anti-malarial activity towards CQS (IC50 4.1 μg/ml). The concentration of macronutrients (calcium and magnesium) and trace metals (copper, manganese, iron and zinc) from three Phyllanthus species i.e. P. debilis Klein ex Wild., Phyllanthus niruri L., P. urinaria L. and Alpinia conchigera Griff. were determined using microwave digestion method and analyzed by Flame Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy. Standard Reference Material 1547 (peach leaves) was used to validate the method throughout this study. The recovery values were in the range of 80% to 120% which were in very good agreement with the certified values. The three Phyllanthus species and leaves of A. conchigera showed the highest concentration of calcium compared to other metals and macronutrients studied. The significant presence of all the important macronutrients and trace metals which are essential for human health and well-being substantiate their use medicinally in traditional practices.
Dengue virus infects millions of people worldwide and there is no vaccine or anti-dengue therapeutic available. Screening large numbers of medicinal plants for anti-dengue activities is an alternative strategy in order to find the potent therapeutic compounds. Therefore, this study was designed to identify anti-dengue activities in nineteen medicinal plant extracts that are used in traditional medicine. Local medicinal plants Vernonia cinerea, Hemigraphis reptans, Hedyotis auricularia, Laurentia longiflora, Tridax procumbers and Senna angustifolia were used in this study. The highest inhibitory activates against dengue NS2B-NS3pro was observed in ethanolic extract of S. angustifolia leaves, methanolic extract of V. cinerea leaves and ethanol extract of T. procumbens stems. These findings were further verified by in vitro viral inhibition assay. Methanolic extract of V. cinerea leaves, ethanol extract of T. procumbens stems and at less extent ethanolic extract of S. angustifolia leaves were able to maintain the normal morphology of DENV2-infected Vero cells without causing much cytopathic effects (CPE). The percentage of viral inhibition of V. cinerea and T. procumbens extracts were significantly higher than S. angustifolia extract as measured by plaque formation assay and RT-qPCR. In conclusion, The outcome of this study showed that the methanolic extract of V. cinerea leaves and ethanol extract of T. procumbens stems possessed high inhibitory activates against dengue virus that worth more investigation.
Three popular medicinal plants regarded as improving human sexual function in some parts of Southeast Asia were analysed for their mutagenic properties using modified Ames test (fluctuation test). Extract of one of the plants, Tacca integrifolia Ker-Gawl., was found to be mutagenic using Salmonella typhimurium strains TA98 and TA100. Extract of T. integrifolia, Eurycoma longifolia Jack and Helmintostachys zeylanica (L.) Hook were cytotoxic to human cell lines, Hep2 and HFL1, with IC50 ranging from 11 mug/ml to 55 mug/ml. Extract of E. longifolia was the most cytotoxic with IC50 of 11 mug/ml and 13 mug/ml on Hep2 and HFL1 cell lines respectively. Combined extract of T. integrifolia and H. zeylanica was more cytotoxic than single extract on both Hep2 and HFL1 cell lines while combined extract of E. longifolia and H. zeylanica was more cytotoxic than single extract on Hep2 cell lines. Under the conditions of this study it can be concluded that T. integrifolia is mutagenic and the combined extracts of the medicinal plants was highly cytotoxic.
Seven Malaysian medicinal plants were screened for their antiplasmodial activities in vitro. These plants were selected based on their traditional claims for treatment or to relieve fever. The plant extracts were obtained from Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM). The antiplasmodial activities were carried out using the pLDH assay to Plasmodium falciparum D10 strain (sensitive strain) while the cytotoxic activities were carried out towards Madin- Darby bovine kidney (MDBK) cells using MTT assay. The concentration of extracts used for both screening assays were from the highest concentration 64 microg/ml, two fold dilution to the lowest concentration 0.03 microg/ml. Goniothalamus macrophyllus (stem extract) showed more than 60% growth inhibition while Goniothalamus scortechinii root and stem extract showed a 90% and more than 80% growth inhibition at the last concentration tested, 0.03 microg/ml. The G. scortechini (leaves extract) showed an IC50 (50% growth inhibition) at 8.53 microg/ml, Ardisia crispa (leaves extract) demonstrated an IC50 at 5.90 +/- 0.14 microg/ml while Croton argyratus (leaves extract) showed a percentage inhibition of more than 60% at the tested concentration. Blumea balsamifera root and stem showed an IC50 at 26.25 +/- 2.47 microg/ml and 7.75 +/- 0.35 microg/ ml respectively. Agathis borneensis (leaves extract) demonstrated a 50% growth inhibition at 11.00 +/- 1.41 microg/ml. The study gives preliminary scientific evidence of these plant extracts in line with their traditional claims.
Medicinal plants have many traditional claims including the treatment of ailments of infectious origin. In the evaluation of traditional claims, scientific research is important. The objective of the study was to determine the presence of antibacterial activity in the crude extracts of some of the commonly used medicinal plants in Malaysia, Andrographis paniculata, Vitex negundo, Morinda citrifolia, Piper sarmentosum, and Centella asiatica. In this preliminary investigation, the leaves were used and the crude extracts were subjected to screening against five strains of bacteria species, Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli, using standard protocol of Disc Diffusion Method (DDM). The antibacterial activities were assessed by the presence or absence of inhibition zones and MIC values. M. citrifolia, P. sarmentosum and C. asiatica methanol extract and A. paniculata (water extract) have potential antibacterial activities to both gram positive S. aureus and Methicillin Resistant S. aureus (MRSA). None of the five plant extracts tested showed antibacterial activities to gram negative E. coli and K. pneumoniae, except for A. paniculata and P. sarmentosum which showed activity towards P. aeruginosa. A. paniculata being the most potent at MIC of 2 g/disc. This finding forms a basis for further studies on screening of local medicinal plant extracts for antibacteria properties.
The organisms of the genus Leishmania are flagellated protozoan parasites and are the causative agents of leishmaniasis. This disease is a major health problem, especially in tropical countries. Currently, cutaneous leishmaniasis is treated by chemotherapy using pentavalent antimonials, but these drugs have serious organo-toxicity, drug resistance on several occasions, and low efficiency in controlling the infection. The present work is carried out to evaluate the in vitro antileishmanial activity of methanolic extracts and phytochemical fractions of two plants ethnobotanically used against leishmaniasis and skin infection, Calotropis procera and Rhazya stricta leaves against Leishmania major promastigote and amastigote stages and cytotoxicity against the Vero cell line. The leaves of C. procera and R. stricta were extracted with methanol and fractionated by petroleum ether, chloroform, ethyl acetate, n-butanol, and water. The methanolic extracts of the leaves of C. procera and R. stricta exhibited antileishmanial activity against L. major promastigotes with IC50 values of 66.8 and 42.4 µg mL-1, respectively. While their CC50 2.3 and 298 µg mL-1 and their SI 0.03 and 7.03 respectively. However, the fractionations of the methanolic extract of C. procera leaves revealed antiparasitic activity against both L. major promastigote and amastigote stages in vitro, which significantly increased with polarity with the exception of n-butanol. Hence the best activity was revealed by the water fraction (IC50 of 26.3 and 29.0 µg mL-1) for the two stages. In conclusion, further phytochemical investigation should be performed for the C. procera water extract in terms of antileishmanial active ingredient isolation that may enhance the possibility of avoiding toxic substances and overcome the low SI (1.1 and 1.01).
Herbal medicines are becoming more popular and acceptable day by day due to their effectiveness, limited side effects, and cost-effectiveness. Cholistani plants are reported as a rich source of antibacterial, antifungal, antiprotozoal, antioxidant, and anticancer agents. The current study has evaluated antiviral potential of selected Cholistani plants. The whole plants were collected, ground and used in extract formation with n-hexane, ethyl acetate and n-butanol. All the extracts were concentrated by using a rotary evaporator and concentrate was finally dissolved in an appropriate vol of the same solvent. All of the extracts were tested for their antiviral potential by using 9-11 days old chick embryonated eggs. Each extract was tested against the Avian Influenza virus H9N2 strain (AIV), New Castle Disease virus Lasoota strain (NDV), Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) and an Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV). Hemagglutination test (HA) and Indirect Hemagglutination (IHA) tests were performed for different viruses. The overall order of the antiviral potential of Cholistani plants against viruses was NDV>IBV>IBDV>AIV. In terms of antiviral activity from extracts, the order of activity was n-butanol>ethyl acetate>n-hexane. The medicinal plants Achyranthes aspera, Neuroda procumbens, Panicum antidotale, Ochthochloa compressa and Suaeda fruticose were very effective against all four poultry viruses through their extracts. The low IC50 values of these extracts confirm the high antiviral potential against these viruses. It is worth to mention that Achyranthes aspera was found positive against IBDV through all its extracts which overcome the problem of unavailability of any known drug against IBDV. In short, the study proved that Cholistani plants are rich source of antiviral agent and their extracts can be used as good source of antiviral drugs both in crude and in purified form.
Eurycoma longifolia, locally known as 'Tongkat Ali' is a popular local medicinal plant that possess a lot of medicinal properties as claimed traditionally, especially in the treatment of malaria. The claims have been proven scientifically on isolated compounds from the plant. The present study is to investigate the anti malaria properties of Eurycoma longifolia standardized extract (root) (TA164) alone and in combination with artemisinin in vivo. Combination treatment of the standardized extract (TA164) with artemisinin suppressed P. yoelii infection in the experimental mice. The 4 day suppressive test showed that TA164 suppressed the parasitemia of P. yoelii-infected mice as dose dependent manner (10, 30 and 60 mg/kg BW) by oral and subcutaneous treatment. By oral administration, combination of TA164 at 10, 30 and 60 mg/kg BW each with artemisinin respectively showed a significant increase in the parasitemia suppression to 63, 67 and 80 percent as compared to artemisinin single treatment (31%). Using subcutaneous administration, at 10 mg/kg BW of TA164 in combination with 1.7 mg/kg BW of artemisinin gave a suppression of 80% of infection. This study showed that combination treatment of TA164 with artemisinin gives a promising potential anti malaria candidate using both oral and subcutaneous route, the later being the most potent.
Catharanthus roseus (L.) known as Madagascar periwinkle (MP) is a legendary medicinal plant mostly because of possessing two invaluable antitumor terpenoid indole alkaloids (TIAs), vincristine and vinblastine. The plant has also high aesthetic value as an evergreen ornamental that yields prolific blooms of splendid colors. The plant possesses yet another unique characteristic as an amiable experimental host for the maintenance of the smallest bacteria found on earth, the phytoplasmas and spiroplasmas, and serves as a model for their study. Botanical information with respect to synonyms, vernacular names, cultivars, floral morphology, and reproduction adds to understanding of the plant while the geography and ecology of periwinkle illustrate the organism's ubiquity. Good agronomic practices ensure generous propagation of healthy plants that serve as a source of bioactive compounds and multitudinous horticultural applications. The correlation between genetic diversity, variants, and TIA production exists. MP is afflicted with a whole range of diseases that have to be properly managed. The ethnobotanical significance of MP is exemplified by its international usage as a traditional remedy for abundant ailments and not only for cancer. TIAs are present only in micro quantities in the plant and are highly poisonous per se rendering a challenge for researchers to increase yield and reduce toxicity.
Brucea javanica, Azadirachta indica, and Typhonium flagelliforme are medicinal plants commonly used to treat conditions associated with tumour formation. This study aimed to determine the antiproliferative activity of these plants extracts on KB and ORL-48 oral cancer cell lines and to suggest their mode of cell death. The concentration producing 50% cell inhibition (IC50) was determined and the activity was examined under an inverted microscope. Immunohistochemistry fluorescent staining method (TUNEL) was performed to indicate the mechanism of cell death and the fragmented DNA band pattern produced was obtained for verification. Compared to Azadirachta sp. and Typhonium sp., the antiproliferative activity of Brucea sp. extract was the most potent on both KB and ORL-48 cells with IC50 of 24.37 ± 1.75 and 6.67 ± 1.15 µg/mL, respectively. Signs of cell attrition were observed 24 hr after treatment. Green fluorescent spots indicating cell death by apoptosis were observed in images of both cells following treatment with all the three extracts. DNA fragments harvested from Brucea-treated cells produced bands in a ladder pattern suggesting the apoptotic effect of the extract. It is thus concluded that Brucea sp. extract exhibited cytotoxic activity on ORL-48 cells and their action mechanism is via apoptosis.
The Hymenocallis littoralis, an ornamental and medicinal plant, had been traditionally used for wound healing. In the present study, an analytical method using HPLC with ultraviolet detection was developed for the quantification of lycorine in the extracts of different parts of wild plant and tissue culture samples of H. littoralis. The separation was achieved using a reversed-phase column. The method was found to be accurate, repeatable, and sensitive for the quantification of minute amount of lycorine present in the samples. The highest lycorine content was found in the bulb extract (2.54 ± 0.02 μg/mg) whereas the least was in the root extract (0.71 ± 0.02 μg/mg) of the wild plants. Few callus culture samples had high content of lycorine, comparable to that of wild plants. The results showed that plant growth regulators, 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) alone at 4.5 μM (2.58 ± 0.38 μg/mg) or a combination of 2,4-D at 9.00 μM with 4.5 μM of 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP), were the optimum concentrations for the production of high lycorine (2.45 ± 0.15 μg/mg) content in callus culture. The present analytical method could be of value for routine quantification of lycorine in the tissue culture production and standardization of the raw material or extracts of H. littoralis.
As aboriginal sources of medications, medicinal plants are used from the ancient times. Andrographis paniculata is one of the highly used potential medicinal plants in the world. This plant is traditionally used for the treatment of common cold, diarrhoea, fever due to several infective cause, jaundice, as a health tonic for the liver and cardiovascular health, and as an antioxidant. It is also used to improve sexual dysfunctions and serve as a contraceptive. All parts of this plant are used to extract the active phytochemicals, but the compositions of phytoconstituents widely differ from one part to another and with place, season, and time of harvest. Our extensive data mining of the phytoconstituents revealed more than 55 ent-labdane diterpenoids, 30 flavonoids, 8 quinic acids, 4 xanthones, and 5 rare noriridoids. In this review, we selected only those compounds that pharmacology has already reported. Finally we focused on around 46 compounds for further discussion. We also discussed ethnobotany of this plant briefly. Recommendations addressing extraction process, tissue culture, and adventitious rooting techniques and propagation under abiotic stress conditions for improvement of phytoconstituents are discussed concisely in this paper. Further study areas on pharmacology are also proposed where needed.
Two new bisindole alkaloids, bisnicalaterines B and C (1 and 2) consisting of an eburnane and a corynanthe type of skeletons, were isolated from the bark of Hunteria zeylanica. Their absolute structures were determined by combination of NMR, CD, and computational methods, and each of them was shown to be in an atropisomeric relationship. Bisnicalaterines B and C (1 and 2) showed potent vasorelaxant activity on isolated rat aorta.