The origin of formation water salinity variation in Chang 9 stratum, Jiyuan oilfield, Ordos basin is studied here. 91 formation water samples show that water salinity is characterized by a wide range and a complex plane distribution. In order to find out the main cause of such distribution complexity and reveal the relationship between formation water and evolution of reservoir traps, core data, chemical analysis result of formation water and log data are analyzed from perspectives of diagenesis and tectonism. And then, their characteristics are presented as the followings. In high salinity area, tuffaceous mudstone interlayer is found growing. Besides, the condition of Na++K+ is opposite to that of Ca2+, for its rate of concentration increase slows down with total salinity accumulating. In low salinity area, while, with fracture and faults developing, some formation water of CaCl2 type turns into MgCl2, NaHCO3 or Na2SO4 type. The cause is thus proposed to be composed of two aspects. One covers tuff alteration and later diagenesis for the high salinity. To be specific, montmorillonite, developed from tuff alteration, absorbs cation selectively and then ions migrate, during which more Na++K+ get lost, while more Ca2+ reserved. Afterwards, those reserved Ca2+ get released with montmorillonite transforming to illite, which results in a loss of Na++K+ and accumulation of Ca2+. Lots of ions are released into formation water during that process and later diagenetic process, which leads to the high water salinity. The other aspect is the development of faults and fractures, through which, the upper low salinity formation water gets connected. And that is the main cause of low salinity. At last, geological significance is discussed from two angles. Firstly, tuff alteration and later diagenesis are pivotal to reservoir reconstruction; and secondly, faults and fractures play an important role in oil transportation and storage.
We measured Vibrio spp. distribution and community profile in the tropical estuary of Port Klang and coastal water of Port Dickson, Malaysia. Vibrio spp. abundance ranged from 15 to 2395 colony forming units mL-1, and was driven by salinity and chlorophyll a (Chl a) concentration. However, the effect of salinity was pronounced only when salinity was <20 ppt. A total of 27 Vibrio spp. were identified, and theVibrio spp. community at Port Dickson was more diverse (H' = 1.94 ± 0.21). However species composition between Port Dickson and Port Klang were similar. Two frequently occurring Vibrio spp. were V. owensii and V. rotiferianus, which exhibited relatively higher growth rates (ANCOVA: F > 4.338, P < 0.05). Co-culture experiments between fast- and slow-growing Vibrio spp. revealed that fast-growing Vibrio spp. (r-strategists) were overwhelmed by slower-growing Vibrio spp. (K-strategists) when nutrient conditions were set towards oligotrophy. In response to resource availability, the intrinsic growth strategy of each Vibrio spp. determined its occurrence and the development of Vibrio spp. community composition.
Membrane distillation (MD) is an advantageous separation process compared with pressure-driven technologies and was subsequently introduced to treat aquaculture wastewater. Harnessing a superhydrophobic membrane in an MD process is of extreme importance to prevent membrane wetting. In this work, the electrospun polypropylene (PP) membrane was surface modified by depositing an additional coating of PP via the solvent-exchange method, thereby improving the membrane's superhydrophobicity. Layer-by-layer deposition of PP caused the formation of uniform polymer spherulites on the membrane surface, which levelled up the membrane's surface roughness. A superhydrophobic surface was achieved by applying a single-layered PP coating, with static water contact angle of 152.2° and sliding angle of 12.5°. While all membranes achieved almost perfect salt rejection (up to 99.99%), the MD permeate flux improved by 30%, average of 13.0 kg/m2h, when the single-layered PP-coated membrane was used to treat the high salinity water in both 2 and 60 hr MD processes. Further layers of coating resulted in larger size of PP spherulites with higher sliding angle, followed by lowered flux in MD. The evenness of the surface coating and the size of the aggregate PP spherulites (nano-scaled) are two predominant factors contributing to the superhydrophobicity character of a membrane.
The effects of salinity on the embryonic and larvae stage of Crassostrea iredalei
were investigated. Fertilised eggs and one day old D-larvae were subjected to salinities
ranging from 0 to 30 ppt at temperature of 30±2°C. At salinity lower than 10 ppt, 100%
mortality was observed. For embryo development, the highest survival was observed at
salinity 25 ppt with 80.9±2.2% survival with no significant difference compared to 15 and
30 ppt. Shell height and length were both greatest at salinity 30 ppt. Throughout the 11
days culture, the highest larval survival occurred at salinity 15 ppt with no significant
difference compared to all other salinities except 10 ppt. Larval shell sizes showed no
significant differences between salinities, except for 10 ppt. Optimum culture condition for
larvae growth are salinities ranging from 15 to 30 ppt whereby the larval of this species
can tolerate wider range of salinity compared to other oyster species and thus, making it a
competitive species to be cultured.
The protection of concrete structures against corrosion in marine environments has always been a challenge due to the presence of a saline solution-A natural corrosive agent to the concrete paste and steel reinforcements. The concentration of salt is a key parameter influencing the rate of corrosion. In this paper, we propose an optical fiber-based salinity sensor based on bundled multimode plastic optical fiber (POF) as a sensor probe and a concave mirror as a reflector in conjunction with an intensity modulation technique. A refractive index (RI) sensing approach is analytically investigated and the findings are in agreement with the experimental results. A maximum sensitivity of 14,847.486/RIU can be achieved at RI = 1.3525. The proposed technique is suitable for in situ measurement and monitoring of salinity in liquid.
The otoliths of sea bass (Lates calcarifer) were sampled from 23 locations in Peninsular Malaysia in order to analyse the Sr/Ca, Mg/Ca and Ba/Ca ratios. This study found that these elements/Ca ratios in sea bass otoliths were correlated with the salinity zone (thalassic series) compared with elements/Ca ratios in ambient water. The contradictory pattern of Sr/ Ca ratios and Ba/Ca ratios in otoliths was found according to salinity zone variations. Thus, oligohaline waters showed the highest Ba/Ca ratios while the highest Sr/Ca ratios were recorded for saline waters. The terrigenous enrichment of Ba in water also affects the Ba content in otoliths. The presence of Mg in otoliths acts as a rival to Ba, thus affecting Mg and Ba deposition. Meanwhile, Ba is the tracer for salinity fluctuations based on the partition coefficient (D) and it shows significant changes. However, the elements in otoliths were found to originate indirectly from the water column. The sequence of the elements/Ca ratios in otoliths and ambient water was Sr/Ca>Mg/Ca>Ba/Ca and Sr/Ca>Ba/Ca>Mg/ Ca, respectively.
Benthic dinoflagellates are known to occur in the water column. The reason they can be found in different parts of the ecosystem is not clear. This study aims to determine the species and the cell abundance of benthic dinoflagellates in the water column and macrophytes collected from two different locations i.e. semi-enclosed lagoon and open coastal waters. The physico-chemical parameters (temperature, salinity, pH, dissolved oxygen) and nutrients (nitrate and phosphate) were determined. Results showed that in the lagoon, the most abundant dinoflagellate species on the macrophytes was also the most abundant dinoflagellate species in the water column. The species that dominated the water column and marophytes in the lagoon was Bysmatrum caponii. In the coastal area the trend was not clear. Coolia dominated the macrophytes whereas Peridinium quinquecorne dominated the water column. The physico-chemical parameters determined were similar at both sites except for nutrients. Results show that type of substrates and different geomorphology effects benthic dinoflagellates cell abundance in the macrophytes and water column.
Foam flooding technique, commonly known as foam assisted water alternating gas method (FAWAG) has been identified as an effective chemical enhanced oil recovery (CEOR) technique. The ability of EOR-foam to sweep oil in low permeable zones makes it important displacement fluid in the oil industry. However, extreme reservoir conditions such as temperature, pressure and salinity have detrimental effects on the stability and the overall performance of the EOR-foam. Consequently, understanding foam stability and performance under different conditions is crucial for long term oil field application. This paper discusses the current status of the EOR-foam stability, performance and challenges from laboratory studies to field application perspective. The paper also highlights the knowledge gaps which require further research for successful field application.
The incorporation of a spacer among membranes has a major influence on fluid dynamics and performance metrics. Spacers create feed channels and operate as turbulence promoters to increase mixing and reduce concentration/temperature polarization effects. However, spacer geometry remains unoptimized, and studies continue to investigate a wide range of commercial and custom-made spacer designs. The in-depth discussion of the present systematic review seeks to discover the influence of Reynolds number or solution flowrate on flow hydrodynamics throughout a spacer-filled channel. A fast-flowing solution sweeping one membrane's surface first, then the neighboring membrane's surface produces good mixing action, which does not happen commonly at laminar solution flowrates. A sufficient flowrate can suppress the polarization layer, which may normally require the utilization of a simple feed channel rather than complex spacer configurations. When a recirculation eddy occurs, it disrupts the continuous flow and effectively curves the linear fluid courses. The higher the flowrate, the better the membrane performance, the higher the critical flux (or recovery rate), and the lower the inherent limitations of spacer design, spacer shadow effect, poor channel hydrodynamics, and high concentration polarization. In fact, critical flow achieves an acceptable balance between improving flow dynamics and reducing the related trade-offs, such as pressure losses and the occurrence of concentration polarization throughout the cell. If the necessary technical flowrate is not used, the real concentration potential for transport is relatively limited at low velocities than would be predicted based on bulk concentrations. Electrodialysis stack therefore may suffer from the dissociation of water molecules. Next studies should consider that applying a higher flowrate results in greater process efficiency, increased mass transfer potential at the membrane interface, and reduced stack thermal and electrical resistance, where pressure drop should always be indicated as a consequence of the spacer and circumstances used, rather than a problem.
Coolia is a widespread and ecologically important genus of benthic marine dinoflagellates found in tropical regions. Historically, there has been taxonomic confusion about the taxonomy and toxicity of this group. The goal of this study was to resolve morphological questions concerning Coolia tropicalis and determine the taxonomic identity of the Australian Coolia isolate which has been reported to produce cooliatoxins. To accomplish this, the morphology of tropical strains from Belize (the type locality of C. tropicalis), Malaysia, Indonesia, and Australia were examined and compared to published reports. The morphological analysis showed that C. tropicalis differs from the original description in that it has a slightly larger size (35-47 μm long by 30-45 μm wide versus 23-40 μm long by 25-39 μm wide), and the shape of fourth apical plate, and the length of Po plate (7.4-12 μm versus 7 μm). Based on both morphology and phylogenetic analysis using LSU D1- D3 rDNA sequences, the clones of C. tropicalis from Malaysia, Indonesia, and Belize were found to form a monophyletic clade within the genus. The strain producing cooliatoxin was found to be C. tropicalis, not Coolia monotis as originally assumed. To explore the factors influencing the growth of Coolia species, the growth rates of C. tropicalis and Coolia malayensis were determined at different temperatures and salinities. Both species tolerated a wide range of temperatures, but cannot survive at temperatures <20°C or >35°C. C. monotis, the dominant species reported in the literature, probably does not produce toxins.
Marine biofouling causes problems to marine structure and obstructs condenser tubes in cooling systems which use sea water as the coolant. The main purpose of this study is to investigate the seasonal ecology of biofouling organisms such as the green mussel, Perna viridis, the dominant fouling species in the Eastern Johore Straits at the Senoko Power Station. The spawning time and its relationship with environmental conditions were studied. The physical, chemical and biological conditions of the sea at Senoko were monitored for a year. Settling slides were used to study the fouling succession in different monsoon seasons. The study showed that there were two main spawning peaks for the green mussel and that these peaks occurred during the intermonsoon months of November and April. These peaks were also correlated with the bimodal patterns for salinity, dissolved oxyen, bivalve veliger larval density and total plankton biomass of the Eastern Johore Strait water. Succession patterns were similar during the two monsoon seasons, however, the rate of fouling was probably greater during the southwest monsoon months. It is therefore advisable that the control or reduction of biofouling in Eastern Johore Strait should take into account the seasonal fluctuations and spawning of the fouling organisms.
Malacca Strait (MS) has an important role and potential for many countries. It is a major transportation route for oil and commodities across continents. In addition, various activities such as shipping, fishing, aquaculture, oil drilling, and energy are also carried out in MS. Tides strongly affect the MS environment so that it becomes a major parameter in MS management. This paper is the first study, which presents MS tidal hydrodynamics based on a baroclinic and nonhydrostatic approach. Tidal hydrodynamics in MS and the surrounding waters were assessed using tidal forces, temperature, salinity, and density. This study analyzes the amplitude, phase, current ellipses, and semi-major axis of the tides. These variables are obtained from the simulation results of the three-dimensional numerical models of M2 tides and combined tides (M2, S2, N2, K1, and O1) with nonhydrostatic models. Then the results obtained are verified by observation data. Amplitude and phase of the tidal wave in MS originate from two directions, namely the northern part of MS (Andaman Sea) and the South China Sea (SCS). Tides from the north of MS propagate into the MS, while tides from the SCS travel to Singapore Waters (SW) and the south of MS. This causes a complex residual flow in SW and shoaling in the middle of MS. Shoaling in the middle of MS is characterized by a large amplitude and semi-major, as in B. Siapiapi. The results of this analysis show that tidal waves are dominated by semidiurnal types rather than diurnal types. The M2 current ellipse has dominantly anticlockwise rotation along the west of the MS, while along the east of MS, it has generally a clockwise rotation.
One of the techniques to increase oil recovery from hydrocarbon reservoirs is the injection of low salinity water. It is shown that the injection of low salinity water changes the wettability of the rock. However, there are argumentative debates concerning low salinity water effect on changing the wettability of the oil/brine/rock system in the oil reservoirs. In this regard, molecular dynamics simulation (MDS) as a tool to simulate the phenomena at the molecular level has been used for more than a decade. In this study, the Zisman plot (presented by KRUSS Company) was simulated through MDS, and then, contact angle experiments for n-decane interactions on the Bentheimer substrate in the presence of different concentrations of sodium ions were conducted. MDS was then used to simulate experiments and understand the wettability trend based on free-energy calculations. Hereafter, a new model was developed in this study to correlate free energies with contact angles. The developed model predicted the experimental results with high accuracy (R2 ∼ 0.98). A direct relation was observed between free energy and water contact angle. In contrast, an inverse relation was noticed between the ion concentration and the contact angle such that an increase in the ion concentration resulted in a decrease in the contact angle and vice versa. In other terms, increasing brine ionic concentrations in the presence of n-decane is linked to a decrease in free energies and an increase in the wetting state of a sandstone. The comparison between the developed model's predicted contact angles and experimental observations showed a maximum deviation of 14.32%, which is in satisfactory agreement to conclude that MDS can be used as a valuable and economical tool to understand the wettability alteration process.
The research presented here investigates the reaction mechanism of wollastonite in situ mineral carbonation for carbon dioxide (CO2) sequestration. Because wollastonite contains high calcium (Ca) content, it was considered as a suitable feedstock in the mineral carbonation process. To evaluate the reaction mechanism of wollastonite for geological CO2 sequestration (GCS), a series of carbonation experiments were performed at a range of temperatures from 35 to 90 °C, pressures from 1500 to 4000 psi, and salinities from 0 to 90,000 mg/L NaCl. The kinetics batch modeling results were validated with carbonation experiments at the specific pressure and temperature of 1500 psi and 65 °C, respectively. The results showed that the dissolution of calcium increases with increment in pressure and salinity from 1500 to 4000 psi and 0 to 90000 mg/L NaCl, respectively. However, the calcium concentration decreases by 49%, as the reaction temperature increases from 35 to 90 °C. Besides, it is clear from the findings that the carbonation efficiency only shows a small difference (i.e., ±2%) for changing the pressure and salinity, whereas the carbonation efficiency was shown to be enhanced by 62% with increment in the reaction temperature. These findings can provide information about CO2 mineralization of calcium silicate at the GCS condition, which may enable us to predict the fate of the injected CO2, and its subsurface geochemical evolution during the CO2-fluid-rock interaction.
Directional solvent extraction is one of the promising membrane-less seawater desalination method. This technique was not extensively investigated due the poor mixing and separation performances of its bench-scale system. It is believed that, overcoming these drawbacks is possible now with the rapid development of microfluidics technology that enabled high-precession micro mixing and separation. This work presents microfluidics chip for extracting and separating salt from seawater. The chip was designed with two sections for extraction and separation. In both sections, the liquids were separated using capillary channels perpendicular to the main stream. The main channels were designed to be 400 µm in width and 100 µm in height. Two streams inlets were introduced through a Y-junction containing octanoic acid as the organic phase and saltwater as the aqueous phase. The desalination performance was investigated at four different temperatures and five different solvent flow rates. Water product salinity was recorded to be as low as 0.056% (w/w) at 60 °C and 40 mL/h. A maximum water yield of 5.2% was achieved at 65 °C and 40 mL/h with a very low solvent residual (70 ppm). The chip mass transfer efficiency was recorded to be as high as 68% under similar conditions. The fabricated microfluidic desalination system showed a significant improvement in terms of water yield and separation efficiency over the conventional macroscale. The high performance of this microsystem resulted from its ability to achieve a high mixing efficiency and separate phases selectively and that will provide a good platform in the near future to develop small desalination kits for personal use.
Banana is often grown in coastal-regions, and while known for its sensitivity towards seawater, little is documented on the effect of sea-salt on the growth, physiology and metal homeostasis. Here we report that banana plantlets exposed to sea-salt at extreme (average seawater concentration; 52.7 dS m-1), severe (28.5 dS m-1) or moderate (10.2 dS m-1) salinity levels had reduced root length (2.0-6.0-fold), plant height (1.2-1.6-fold), leaf number (2.0-2.3-fold) and leaf area (3.3-4.0-fold) compared to control plantlets. Degradation of pigments (total chlorophyll: 1.3-12.3-fold, chlorophyll a: 1.3-9.2-fold; chlorophyll b: 1.3-6.9-fold lower and carotenoids: 1.4-3.7-fold lower) reflected vulnerability of photosystems to salt stress. Relative water content showed a maximum decrease of 1.5-fold in salt stress. MDA analysis showed sea-salt exposure triggers 2.3-3.5-fold higher lipid peroxidation. Metal content analysis showed a 73-fold higher Na value from roots exposed to extreme salinity compared to control plantlets. While phenotype was clearly affected, moderate salinity showed no significant alteration of macro (N, P, K and Ca) and micro (Fe, Mn and Cu) metal content. The antioxidant enzymes: SOD (3.2-fold), CAT (1.7-fold) and GR (6-fold) showed higher activity at moderate salinity level compared to control plantlets but lower activity at severe (SOD: 1.3-fold; CAT: 1.5-fold; GR: 2-fold lower) and extreme seawater salinity (SOD: 1.5; CAT: 1.9; GR: 1.3-fold lower). Mild changes in growth and physiology at sea-salt levels equivalent to moderate seawater flooding, indicate that banana will survive such flooding, while extreme seawater inundation will be lethal. This data provides a reference for future salinity-mediated work in banana.
A comparison of zooplankton abundance and community in the seagrass and non-seagrass areas of Limau-limauan and Bak- Bak waters within the newly established Tun Mustapha Marine Park was made during 15-17 May 2017. Samples were collected via horizontal tow of a 140 μm plankton net. Environmental variables (temperature, salinity, DO, pH, turbidity) showed no significant differences among the study sites. However, zooplankton showed increasing abundance from non-seagrass, seagrass edge, to seagrass areas at Limau-limauan, while abundance values were comparable among the stations at Bak-bak. Overall zooplankton abundance was significantly higher at the seagrass areas relative to the non-seagrass station at Limau-limauan (p < 0.005), while no statistical difference was found at Bak-Bak (p < 0.21). Mean canopy height was 3-fold higher (p < 0.001) at Limau-limauan than Bak-Bak, suggesting the importance of seagrass bed structural complexity in habitat preference for zooplankton. Cluster analysis revealed the zooplankton community from the seagrass area at Limau-limauan was different from that at seagrass edge and non-seagrass areas, which may be attributed to the influence of seagrass meadows in forming characteristic zooplankton compositions. Marked differences in zooplankton composition and abundance even in close vicinity of sites suggest the importance of local small-scale variations in seagrass habitats in shaping the zooplankton community.
This study was aimed at determining the optimum temperature for culturing the copepod, Euterpina acutifrons. The trial was conducted for 10 days in chambers at temperatures of 25⁰C, 27⁰C, 29⁰C and 31⁰C. Ten adult individuals of the copepod were randomly collected and placed into three replicate experimental flasks for each treatment. Throughout the trial, the salinity, light intensity, and photoperiod were maintained at 30 ±2psu, 100molm-2s-1 and 12:12 light-dark cycle, respectively. The copepods were fed with 80,000cell/ml Isochrysis sp. daily. At the end of the trial, the total numbers of E. acutifrons nauplii, copepodites and adults were determined and counted using Sedgwick-Rafter. The highest population was found at 27⁰C with mean total population of 800±100 individuals from an initial of 10 individuals. This was followed by those reared at 25⁰C and 29⁰C where the population counts were 700±100 individuals and 367±115 individuals, respectively. At the 31⁰C, all the copepod specimens were found dead on day 5th. Statistical analysis showed that the temperature had a significant effect (P
Fusarium genus comprises important saprophytic and phytopathogenic fungi and is widespread in nature. The present study reports the occurrence of Fusarium spp. in soils from two mangrove forests in northern Peninsular Malaysia and analyzed physico-chemical properties of the mangrove soil. Based on TEF-1α sequences, nine Fusarium species were identified: Fusarium solani species complex (FSSC) (n = 77), Fusarium verticillioides (n = 20), Fusarium incarnatum (n = 10), Fusarium proliferatum (n = 7), Fusarium lateritium (n = 4), Fusarium oxysporum (n = 3), Fusarium rigidiuscula (n = 2), Fusarium chlamydosporum (n = 1), and Fusarium camptoceras (n = 1); FSSC isolates were the most prevalent. Phylogenetic analysis of the combined TEF-1α and ITS sequences revealed diverse phylogenetic affinities among the FSSC isolates and potentially new phylogenetic clades of FSSC. Soil analysis showed varied carbon content, pH, soil moisture, and salinity, but not nitrogen content, between sampling locations. Regardless of the physico-chemical properties, various Fusarium species were recovered from the mangrove soils. These were likely saprophytes; however, some were well-known plant pathogens and opportunistic human pathogens. Thus, mangrove soils might serve as inoculum sources for plant and human pathogenic Fusarium species. The present study demonstrates the occurrence of various Fusarium species in the extreme environment of mangrove soil, thereby contributing to the knowledge on species diversity in Fusarium.
This article contains water quality data collected in a shallow and narrow Setiu Lagoon during the southwest monsoon, wet period of northeast monsoon and dry period of northeast monsoon. The surface water quality parameters, which include the temperature, salinity, chlorophyll-a and nutrients (ammonia, nitrate, phosphate, and silicate) were sampled twice per day (high and low tides) at a total of eight stations. Hourly current speed and direction was obtained from mooring of two units of current meters. Compared to the Malaysia Marine Water Quality Criteria and Standard (MWQCS), nutrients in Setiu Lagoon were in Class 2. Although limited, this dataset can provide insights on the changes of water quality condition in Setiu Lagoon under the presence of anthropogenic pressures.