Existing measures of breast size dissatisfaction have poor ecological validity or have not been fully evaluated in terms of psychometric properties. Here, we report on the development of the Breast Size Rating Scale (BSRS), a novel measure of breast size dissatisfaction consisting of 14 computer-generated images varying in breast size alone. Study 1 (N=107) supported the scale's construct validity, insofar as participants were able to correctly order the images in terms of breast size. Study 2 (N=234) provided evidence of the test-retest reliability of BSRS-derived scores after 3 months. Studies 3 (N=730) and 4 (N=234) provided evidence of the convergent validity of BSRS-derived breast size dissatisfaction scores, which were significantly associated with a range of measures of body image. The BSRS provides a useful tool for researchers examining women's breast size dissatisfaction.
The Functionality Appreciation Scale (FAS; Alleva et al., 2017) is a 7-item measure of an individual's appreciation of their body for what it can do and is capable of doing. To date, its psychometric properties have not been examined beyond the parent study and outside English-speaking samples. To rectify this, we examined the psychometric properties of a Bahasa Malaysia (Malay) translation of the FAS. An online sample of 815 Malaysia citizens completed a Malay translation of the FAS, along with validated measures of body appreciation, weight discrepancy, drive for muscularity, perceived pressure from and internalisation of appearance ideals, self-esteem, and trait mindfulness. Exploratory factor analyses supported a 1-dimensional factor structure of FAS scores, which was upheld using confirmatory factor analysis. FAS scores were also invariant across sex and there was no significant sex difference in scores. Construct validity was generally supported through significant associations with the additional measures included in the study. Incremental validity was also established insofar as functionality appreciation predicted self-esteem over-and-above the variance accounted for by other body image measures. The availability of the Malay FAS will be of use to scholars in Malaysia, but establishing cross-linguistic invariance will be an important next step.
The 10-item Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2) is a widely-used measure of a facet of positive body image. Here, we examined the psychometric properties of a Bahasa Malaysia (Malay) translation of the BAS-2 in a community sample of Malaysian Malay and Chinese adults (N = 781). Participants completed the Malay BAS-2 alongside demographic items and measures of subjective happiness, life satisfaction, actual-ideal weight discrepancy (women only), drive for muscularity (men only), and internalisation of appearance ideals. Exploratory factor analyses with a Malay subsample indicated that BAS-2 scores reduced to a single dimension with all 10 items in women and men, although the factor structure was similar but not identical across sex. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the one-dimensional factor structure had adequate fit following modifications. BAS-2 scores were partially scalar invariant across sex (with no significant sex differences) and ethnicity (Malay participants had significantly higher body appreciation than Chinese participants), as well as had adequate internal consistency. Evidence of construct and incremental validity was also provided through associations with additional measures and the prediction of subjective happiness over-and-above other variables, respectively. The availability of the Malay BAS-2 should help advance research on the body appreciation construct in Malay-speaking populations.
The 34-item Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire-Appearance Scales (MBSRQ-AS) is a widely-used measure of multidimensional body image. Here, we examined the psychometric properties of a Bahasa Malaysia (Malay) translation of the MBSRQ-AS. A sample of 629 Malaysian Malays (women n = 315) completed the MBSRQ-AS, as well as measures of body appreciation, psychological well-being, perceptions of appearance ideals, and internalisation of appearance ideals. Exploratory factor analysis indicated that the MBSRQ-AS items reduced to four dimensions, although one factor had less-than-adequate internal consistency. Omitting this factor resulted in a 23-item 3-factor solution, which we tested for fit using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) alongside the parent 5-factor model. CFA indicated that both models had good fit on some indices, but less-than-ideal fit on other indices, with the 3-factor model showing comparatively better fit. Multi-group CFA indicated that it was not possible to achieve scalar invariance across sex, but internal consistency coefficients were adequate. Evidence of construct validity, as assessed through correlations between MBSRQ-AS scores and additional measures, was mixed. We discuss reasons that complicate interpretation of the dimensionality of MBSRQ-AS scores in this and previous studies, and call for further research on this issue.
Issues of construct commonality and distinguishability in body image research are typically addressed using structural equal models, but such methods can sometimes present problems of interpretation when data patterns are complex. One recent-developed tool that could help in summarising complex data patterns is Item Pool Visualisation (IPV), an illustrative method that locates item pools from within the same dataset and illustrates these in the form of single or nested radar charts. Here, we demonstrate the utility of IPV in visualising data patterns vis-à-vis positive body image. Five-hundred-and-one adults from the United Kingdom completed seven widely-used measures of positive body image and data were subjected IPV. Results demonstrated that, of the included measures, the Body Appreciation Scale-2 provided the closest and most precise measurement of a core positive body image construct. The Functionality Appreciation Scale and the Authentic Pride subscale of the Body and Appearance Self-Conscious Emotions Scale tapped more distal aspects. Our results also highlight possible limitations with the use of several other instruments as measures of positive body image. We discuss implications for research aimed at better understanding the nature of positive body image and interpreting complex data patterns in body image research more generally.
The construct of body acceptance by others (i.e., the degree to which an individual perceives acceptance for their appearance by others) is central to conceptual models of positive body image and adaptive eating styles. It is typically measured using the 10-item Body Acceptance by Others Scale (BAOS; Avalos & Tylka, 2006), but emerging research has suggested that a unidimensional model of BAOS scores may be unstable. Here, we examined the factor structure of BAOS scores in a sample of adults from the United Kingdom (N = 1148). Exploratory factor analyses indicated that BAOS scores reduced to two dimensions in women, of which only a primary 6-item factor was stable. In men, all 10 items loaded onto a primary factor. However, the results of confirmatory factor analyses indicated that both models of BAOS scores had poor fit. Although both the unidimensional 10-item and 6-item models had adequate internal consistency, our results are suggestive of factor structure instability. We conclude by suggesting ways in which future research could revise the BAOS to improve its factorial stability and validity.
The Body Acceptance by Others Scale (BAOS) measures the degree to which individuals perceive body acceptance by others, but its factor structure is questionable. Here, we developed a revision of the BAOS (i.e., the BAOS-2) by designing novel items reflective of generalised perceptions of body acceptance by others. In three studies, we examined the psychometrics of the 13-item BAOS-2. Study 1, with United Kingdom adults (N = 601), led to the extraction of a unidimensional model of BAOS-2 scores and provided evidence of 4-week test-retest reliability. Study 2, with United Kingdom adults (N = 423), indicated that the unidimensional model of BAOS-2 scores had adequate fit and that scores were invariant across gender. Study 2 also provided evidence of convergent, construct, criterion, discriminant, and incremental validity. Study 3 cross-validated the fit of the unidimensional model in adults from the United State (N = 503) and provided evidence of invariance across gender and national group. Internal consistency coefficients of BAOS-2 scores were adequate across all three studies. There were no significant gender differences in BAOS-2 scores and a significant national difference had a negligible effect size. Thus, the BAOS-2 is a psychometrically-sound measure that can be utilised in future research.
The Body Acceptance by Others Scale-2 (BAOS-2) is a 13-item instrument measuring generalised perceptions of body acceptance by others. Here, we first demonstrate that a Bahasa Malaysia (Malay) translation of the BAOS-2 is psychometrically valid in a sample of 1,049 Malaysian adults (Study 1). Using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, we extracted a unidimensional model of BAOS-2 scores that retained all 13 items. BAOS-2 scores had adequate internal consistency and indices of validity (convergent, construct, concurrent, and incremental), and were scalar invariant across gender and ethnicity (Malaysian Malays vs. Chinese). Next, we assessed invariance of BAOS-2 scores across samples from Malaysia, the United Kingdom, and the United States (total N = 2,575; Study 2). Multi-group confirmatory factor analysis showed that partial scalar invariance was achieved. Participants in the interdependent cultural context of Malaysia had significantly higher scores - with small effect sizes - than their counterparts in the independent contexts of the United Kingdom and United States. In addition, women had significantly higher scores than men, but the effect size was negligible. The present study indicates that the Malay BAOS-2 is a psychometrically valid instrument and presents the first comparison of BAOS-2 scores across interdependent and independent contexts.
The Functionality Appreciation Scale (FAS; Alleva et al., 2017) is a 7-item measure of an individual's appreciation of their body for what it can do and is capable of doing. Although the instrument is increasingly used in interventionist studies, its psychometric properties have been infrequently investigated outside Anglophone populations. Here, we examined psychometric properties of a novel Romanian translation of the FAS. An online sample of 959 Romanian adults (18-73 years old) completed the Romanian FAS, and validated measures of positive body image (body appreciation), negative body image (weight discrepancy in women, drive for muscularity in men), eating disorder symptomatology, and psychological well-being (self-esteem, gratitude). Exploratory factor analyses led to the extraction of a 1-dimensional model of FAS scores, which we confirmed using confirmatory factor analysis. FAS scores achieved scalar invariance across sex, but the sex difference in latent FAS scores did not reach significance (d = 0.15). FAS scores had adequate internal consistency and test-retest reliability up to four weeks, and further analyses provided evidence of convergent, construct, and incremental validity. These results support the psychometric properties of the Romanian FAS and present evidence of the importance of functionality appreciation in relation to healthier body image and psychological well-being.
Test adaptation - the translation and validation of source instruments for use in new social identity groups - plays a vital role in body image research. Previously, Swami and Barron (2019) developed a set of good practice recommendations and reporting guidelines for the test adaptation of body image instruments. However, a number of issues in that article were not covered in depth and new issues have emerged as a result of developments in theory and practice. Here, we offer an addendum to Swami and Barron in the form of frequently asked questions. Issues discussed in this article include various methods for achieving good translations, the appropriateness of revising instrument components prior to empirical analyses, determining the number of factors to extract in exploratory factor analyses (EFA), and the usefulness of EFA versus confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) in determining factorial validity. We also cover methods of analyses that have been infrequently utilised by body image scholars, including exploratory structural equation modelling (ESEM), bifactor model analyses, and various methods for establish measurement invariance. When read as an addendum to Swami and Barron, we hope this article helps to clarify issues of importance for body image researchers interested in conducting test adaptation work.
Here, we sought to replicate previous work showing a relationship between connectedness to nature and body appreciation, and extend it by examining associations between exposure to natural environments and other body image-related variables. An online sample of 399 U.S. women and men (Mage=34.55 years) completed measures of body appreciation, connectedness to nature, nature exposure, appearance investment, sociocultural attitudes towards appearance, and self-esteem. Path analysis showed that nature exposure and connectedness to nature, respectively, were associated with body appreciation in women and men, both directly and indirectly via self-esteem. Connectedness to nature also mediated the link between nature exposure and body appreciation. In men, but not women, the link between connectedness to nature and body appreciation was also mediated by appearance investment and internalisation of a muscular ideal. These results may point to novel methods for promoting more positive body image in adults through engagement with nature.
Previous work has shown that exposure to images of nature results in elevated state body appreciation, but static images may lack ecological validity. Here, we examined the impact of exposure to short films of simulated, first-person walks in natural or built environments. Thirty-six university students completed a measure of state body appreciation before and after watching films of either a walk in a natural or a built environment created specifically for the present study. Two weeks later, they completed the same task but watched the other film type. Results indicated that exposure to the film of a natural environment resulted in significantly elevated state body appreciation (d = 0.66). There was no significant change in state body appreciation following exposure to the film of the built environment (d = 0.14). These findings suggest that exposure to films depicting the natural environment may promote immediate, moderate-sized improvements in state body image.
The present study compared the rates of negative body image and risk for disordered eating in young women who identify as part of goth subculture and a matched sample. Participants were 80 women who identified as part of goth subculture and a matched sample of 82 women from London, United Kingdom. Participants completed measures of self-ideal body size discrepancy, body appreciation, appearance investment, and eating disorder symptomatology. Between-group comparisons indicated that goth women reported significantly higher drive for thinness (d=0.51), body dissatisfaction (d=0.62), and dysfunctional appearance investment (d=0.52), as well as lower body appreciation (d=0.55), than the matched sample. Heightened expectations about appearance and self-presentation, alongside appearance competitiveness, may result in more negative body image and disordered eating in young women who identify with goth subculture, but further research is necessary on this under-studied youth subculture.
Body image research has grown rapidly to include new cultural and linguistic populations, but this gives rise to a need for measurement instruments that are sensitive to local contextual variations while remaining equivalent across groups. Test adaptation, or the translation and validation of a source instrument for use in a new cultural group, is an important part of this process. Here, we offer an operational framework for conducting effective test adaptation. We cover good-practice guidelines for instrument translation and suggest effective strategies for achieving semantic equivalence of translated instruments. We also focus on measurement invariance and provide good-practice and reporting guidelines for conducting exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Finally, we suggest good-practice guidelines for demonstrating that scores on translated measures have good reliability and validity. It is our hope that the availability of this article will assist body image scholars seeking to conduct robust test adaptations of existing measurement tools.
The Breast Size Satisfaction Survey (BSSS) was established to assess women's breast size dissatisfaction and breasted experiences from a cross-national perspective. A total of 18,541 women were recruited from 61 research sites across 40 nations and completed measures of current-ideal breast size discrepancy, as well as measures of theorised antecedents (personality, Western and local media exposure, and proxies of socioeconomic status) and outcomes (weight and appearance dissatisfaction, breast awareness, and psychological well-being). In the total dataset, 47.5 % of women wanted larger breasts than they currently had, 23.2 % wanted smaller breasts, and 29.3 % were satisfied with their current breast size. There were significant cross-national differences in mean ideal breast size and absolute breast size dissatisfaction, but effect sizes were small (η2 = .02-.03). The results of multilevel modelling showed that greater Neuroticism, lower Conscientiousness, lower Western media exposure, greater local media exposure, lower financial security, and younger age were associated with greater breast size dissatisfaction across nations. In addition, greater absolute breast size dissatisfaction was associated with greater weight and appearance dissatisfaction, poorer breast awareness, and poorer psychological well-being across nations. These results indicate that breast size dissatisfaction is a global public health concern linked to women's psychological and physical well-being.
The Intuitive Eating Scale-2 (IES-2; Tylka & Kroon Van Diest, 2013) is a widely-used measure of facets of intuitive eating. We examined the psychometric properties of a Bahasa Malaysia (Malay) translation of the IES-2 in a sample of Malaysian Malay and Chinese adults (N = 921). Participants completed a Malay translation of the IES-2 along with demographic items and measures of psychological well-being, positive and negative body image, and internalisation of appearance ideals. Exploratory factor analyses (EFAs) with Malay subsamples indicated that IES-2 scores reduced to 4 factors in women and 3 in men, both of which diverged from the parent model. Confirmatory factor analysis failed to confirm the parent 4-factor model, and indices for the EFA-derived models were acceptable but not ideal. Of the models tested, the EFA-derived 3-factor model had the best fit indices. Scores on this model had adequate internal consistency and were invariant across sex and ethnicity, but between-group differences in subscale scores were non-significant or negligible. Evidence of the construct validity of Malay IES-2 scores was mixed, particularly in men. These results lead us to question the degree to which intuitive eating as a construct is applicable to Malaysian populations specifically and non-Western populations generally.
Exposure to natural environments has been shown to be associated with more positive body image, but much of the existing research is limited to Western European nations and little is known about the robustness of these associations in other national contexts. In this protocol paper, we present a conceptual model of the direct and indirect associations (i.e., via self-compassion, connectedness to nature, and restorative experiences in nature) between nature exposure and body appreciation. This model brings together conceptualisations from existing research, but also extends it in a number of important ways. The model will be tested through the Body Image in Nature Survey (BINS), a researcher-crowdsourced project involving researchers in multiple nations worldwide. Data collection began in December 2020 and is expected to be completed in February 2022. Data will be analysed to examine the extent to which our conceptual model is robust across nations, as well as other sociodemographic characteristics. We will also determine the extent to which key variables included in our survey are invariant across nations and associated with cultural, socioeconomic, and gender-related factors. The BINS will likely have important implications for the development of nature-based interventions to promote healthier body appreciation in diverse national contexts.
Studies of body appreciation have typically focused on measurement of the construct in urban populations and there remains very little research on body appreciation in rural communities. To fill this gap, the present study examined rural-urban differences in body appreciation in an adult Kadazan-Dusun sample from the state of Sabah in Malaysia. Participants from rural (n = 215) and urban (n = 219) locales in the West Coast administrative district of Sabah were asked to complete Malay versions of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2) and the Satisfaction With Life Scale, and to provide their demographic details. Multi-group confirmatory factor analysis evidenced both partial metric invariance (by allowing loadings for three items to vary) and partial scalar invariance (by freeing the intercept for one item) on the BAS-2. Between-group analyses indicated that rural participants had significantly greater body appreciation than urban participants overall. Additionally, urban men had significantly greater body appreciation than urban women, but there was no gender difference in the rural subsample. Finally, correlational analyses indicated that body appreciation was significantly associated with life satisfaction in both the rural and urban subsamples. The present results highlight the importance of further considering the phenomenology of body appreciation in rural communities.
Existing measures of women's breasted experiences have focused on negative experiences, which de-centres women's meaning-making and relationships with their breasts. To rectify this, we developed a novel measure of women's positive breasted experiences, the Breast Appreciation Scale (BrAS), and examined the psychometric properties of this novel measure across four studies. Study 1, with 307 United Kingdom women, led to the extraction of a 9-item, unidimensional model of BrAS scores that showed adequate composite reliability and 4-week test-retest reliability. Study 2, with 297 United Kingdom women, showed that the unidimensional model of BrAS scores had adequate fit and evidenced convergent, concurrent, discriminant, and incremental validity. Study 3, with 295 women from the United Kingdom, provided additional support for factorial validity and concurrent validity, and additionally provided evidence of known-groups validity insofar as mothers had greater breast appreciation than non-mothers. Study 4 showed that the BrAS was scalar invariant across women from Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States (N = 573) and provided additional evidence of concurrent validity. Based on these results, we conclude that the BrAS is a psychometrically valid measure of women's positive breasted experiences that can be utilised in future research.
The Body and Appearance Self-Conscious Emotions Scale (BASES) measures self-conscious emotions in relation to the body and appearance. While scores have been shown to support a hypothesised 4-factor model consisting of facets of shame, guilt, authentic pride, and hubristic pride, previous studies are limited in their sole reliance on confirmatory factor analysis. Here, we assessed the psychometric properties of a novel Bahasa Malaysia translation of the BASES using an exploratory structural equation modelling (ESEM) framework. Malaysian adults (N = 1049) completed the BASES along with measures of body appreciation, psychological well-being, and secure non-striving. The results of exploratory factor analysis and ESEM in separate split-half subsamples supported a 2-dimensional model consisting of Shame-Guilt and Authentic-Hubristic Pride. This 2-dimensional model was broadly invariant across ethnicity, gender, and age, had adequate internal consistency, and evidenced adequate construct validity in relation to the Authenthic-Hubristic Pride subscale. We interpret our findings as consistent with the view that cultural factors shape the way in which body and appearance-related self-conscious emotions are manifested. Our results also highlight the importance of considering alternative conceptualisations of body and appearance-related self-conscious emotions, which previous studies may have obscured through their reliance on confirmatory factor analyses.