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  1. Lee VW, Kam KQ, Mohamed AR, Musa H, Anandakrishnan P, Shen Q, et al.
    Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm, 2024 Jan;11(1):e200186.
    PMID: 38086061 DOI: 10.1212/NXI.0000000000200186
    BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: We characterize clinical and neuroimaging features of SARS-CoV-2-related acute necrotizing encephalopathy (ANE).

    METHODS: Systematic review of English language publications in PubMed and reference lists between January 1, 2020, and June 30, 2023, in accordance with PRISMA guidelines. Patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection who fulfilled diagnostic criteria for sporadic and genetic ANE were included.

    RESULTS: From 899 articles, 20 cases (17 single case reports and 3 additional cases) were curated for review (50% female; 8 were children). Associated COVID-19 illnesses were febrile upper respiratory tract infections in children while adults had pneumonia (45.6%) and myocarditis (8.2%). Children had early neurologic deterioration (median day 2 in children vs day 4 in adults), seizures (5 (62.5%) children vs 3 of 9 (33.3%) adults), and motor abnormalities (6 of 7 (85.7%) children vs 3 of 7 (42.9%) adults). Eight of 12 (66.7%) adults and 4 (50.0%) children had high-risk ANE scores. Five (62.5%) children and 12 (66.7%) adults had brain lesions bilaterally and symmetrically in the putamina, external capsules, insula cortex, or medial temporal lobes, in addition to typical thalamic lesions of ANE. Hypotension was only seen in adults (30%). Hematologic derangements were common: lymphopenia (66.7%), coagulopathy (60.0%), or elevated D-dimers (100%), C-reactive protein (91.7%), and ferritin (62.5%). A pathogenic heterozygous c/.1754 C>T variant in RANBP2 was present in 2 children: one known to have this before SARS-CoV-2 infection, and a patient tested because the SARS-CoV-2 infection was the second encephalopathic illness. Three other children with no prior encephalopathy or family history of encephalopathy were negative for this variant. Fifteen (75%) received immunotherapy (with IV methylprednisolone, immunoglobulins, tocilizumab, or plasma exchange): 6 (40.0%) with monotherapy and 9 (60.0%) had combination therapy. Deaths were in 8 of 17 with data (47.1%): a 2-month-old male infant and 7 adults (87.5%) of median age 56 years (33-70 years), 4 of whom did not receive immunotherapy.

    DISCUSSION: Children and adults with SARS-CoV-2 ANE have similar clinical features and neuroimaging characteristics. Mortality is high, predominantly in patients not receiving immunotherapy and at the extremes of age.

  2. Sakuma H, Thomas T, Debinski C, Eyre M, Han VX, Jones HF, et al.
    Dev Med Child Neurol, 2024 Aug 14.
    PMID: 39143740 DOI: 10.1111/dmcn.16067
    AIM: To develop standardized diagnostic criteria for 'infection-triggered encephalopathy syndrome (ITES)' and five specific clinical syndromes of ITES.

    METHOD: The draft definitions were based on existing criteria, standardized, and discussed by a panel of international experts using nominal group technique over 18 months to achieve consensus. All criteria use the same format: (1) presence of infection/fever; (2) clinical features including encephalopathy; (3) neuroradiological features on magnetic resonance imaging; (4) exclusion of other causes.

    RESULTS: We first highlighted differences between ITES and infectious and autoimmune encephalitis, which is the most important differential diagnosis. Consensus was achieved to define five specific ITESs: acute encephalopathy with biphasic seizures and late reduced diffusion; acute necrotizing encephalopathy; mild encephalopathy with a reversible splenial lesion; acute fulminant cerebral oedema; and acute shock with encephalopathy and multiorgan failure. Two further conditions that are currently classified as epilepsy syndromes but have similar features to ITES, namely febrile infection-related epilepsy syndrome and hemiconvulsion-hemiplegia-epilepsy syndrome, are also discussed.

    INTERPRETATION: The consensus definition is expected to improve awareness of this disease concept, provide diagnostic framework, and facilitate future international research and clinical trials.

  3. Whittam DH, Karthikeayan V, Gibbons E, Kneen R, Chandratre S, Ciccarelli O, et al.
    J Neurol, 2020 Dec;267(12):3565-3577.
    PMID: 32623595 DOI: 10.1007/s00415-020-10026-y
    INTRODUCTION: While monophasic and relapsing forms of myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody associated disorders (MOGAD) are increasingly diagnosed world-wide, consensus on management is yet to be developed.

    OBJECTIVE: To survey the current global clinical practice of clinicians treating MOGAD.

    METHOD: Neurologists worldwide with expertise in treating MOGAD participated in an online survey (February-April 2019).

    RESULTS: Fifty-two responses were received (response rate 60.5%) from 86 invited experts, comprising adult (78.8%, 41/52) and paediatric (21.2%, 11/52) neurologists in 22 countries. All treat acute attacks with high dose corticosteroids. If recovery is incomplete, 71.2% (37/52) proceed next to plasma exchange (PE). 45.5% (5/11) of paediatric neurologists use IV immunoglobulin (IVIg) in preference to PE. Following an acute attack, 55.8% (29/52) of respondents typically continue corticosteroids for ≥ 3 months; though less commonly when treating children. After an index event, 60% (31/51) usually start steroid-sparing maintenance therapy (MT); after ≥ 2 attacks 92.3% (48/52) would start MT. Repeat MOG antibody status is used by 52.9% (27/51) to help decide on MT initiation. Commonly used first line MTs in adults are azathioprine (30.8%, 16/52), mycophenolate mofetil (25.0%, 13/52) and rituximab (17.3%, 9/52). In children, IVIg is the preferred first line MT (54.5%; 6/11). Treatment response is monitored by MRI (53.8%; 28/52), optical coherence tomography (23.1%; 12/52) and MOG antibody titres (36.5%; 19/52). Regardless of monitoring results, 25.0% (13/52) would not stop MT.

    CONCLUSION: Current treatment of MOGAD is highly variable, indicating a need for consensus-based treatment guidelines, while awaiting definitive clinical trials.

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