The exact etiology of Parkinson's disease (PD) remains obscure, lacking effective diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers. In search of novel molecular factors that may contribute to PD pathogenesis, emerging evidence highlights the multifunctional role of the calcium-binding protein S100B that is widely expressed in the brain and predominantly in astrocytes. Preclinical evidence points towards the possible time-specific contributing role of S100B in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders including PD, mainly by regulating neuroinflammation and dopamine metabolism. Although existing clinical evidence presents some contradictions, estimation of S100B in the serum and cerebrospinal fluid seems to hold a great promise as a potential PD biomarker, particularly regarding the severity of motor and non-motor PD symptoms. Furthermore, given the recent development of S100B inhibitors that are able to cross the blood brain barrier, novel opportunities are arising in the research field of PD therapeutics. In this review, we provide an update on recent advances in the implication of S100B protein in the pathogenesis of PD and discuss relevant studies investigating the biomarker potential of S100B in PD, aiming to shed more light on clinical targeting approaches related to this incurable disorder.
Hormones are known to influence various body systems that include skeletal, cardiac, digestive, excretory, and immune systems. Emerging investigations suggest the key role played by secretions of endocrine glands in immune cell differentiation, proliferation, activation, and memory attributes of the immune system. The link between steroid hormones such as glucocorticoids and inflammation is widely known. However, the role of peptide hormones and amino acid derivatives such as growth and thyroid hormones, prolactin, dopamine, and thymopoietin in regulating the functioning of the immune system remains unclear. Here, we reviewed the findings pertinent to the functional role of hormone-immune interactions in health and disease and proposed perspective directions for translational research in the field.