METHODS: We conducted a multi-ancestry, observational, cross-sectional genetic study using retrospective data from the Global Parkinson's Genetics Program (GP2) release 11 (released in December, 2025). The study investigated causal and risk variants, including copy number variants, in established Parkinson's disease and parkinsonism-associated genes, following the recommendations of the Movement Disorder Society (MDS) Task Force on the Nomenclature of Genetic Movement Disorders, including GBA1, LRRK2, SNCA, VPS35, RAB32, PINK1, PRKN, PARK7, ATP13A2, DCTN1, DNAJC6, FBXO7, JAM2, RAB39B, SLC20A2, SYNJ1, VPS13C, and WDR45. Individuals with Parkinson's disease were diagnosed based on established clinical criteria, including the Parkinson's UK Brain Bank or MDS diagnostic criteria (or both), and healthy control participants were defined as individuals without evidence of neurodegenerative disease and unrelated to participants with Parkinson's disease. We analysed genome and exome sequencing and array genotyping data of 99 783 individuals, including 58 559 individuals with Parkinson's disease and 41 224 controls, from 11 genetically inferred ancestries (African, African admixed, Ashkenazi Jewish, Latino and Indigenous people of the Americas, central Asian, complex admixture, east Asian, European, Finnish, Middle Eastern, and south Asian), defined using reference population-based ancestry inference methods. We calculated allele frequencies for all investigated variants in individuals with Parkinson's disease and controls, both overall and stratified by ancestry.

FINDINGS: Approximately 29% of individuals (29 001 of 99 783; 15 443 [26·4%] of 58 559 individuals with Parkinson's disease and 13 558 [32·9%] of 41 224 controls) were from under-represented populations (ie, non-European and non-Ashkenazi Jewish). Our findings indicated both shared genetic contributors across ancestries as well as ancestry-specific differences in variant frequencies and the spectrum of variants within Parkinson's disease-associated genes. Overall, 1217 (2·1%) of 58 559 individuals with Parkinson's disease carried a causal variant, with substantial variations across ancestries ranging from ten (0·4%) of 2844 African individuals to 251 (10·7%) of 2343 individuals of Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry. Risk variants in GBA1 and LRRK2 were identified in 6893 (11·8%) of 58 559 individuals with Parkinson's disease and 3578 (8·7%) of 41 224 controls. GBA1 risk variants were most frequent overall and identified across all ancestries, but variant frequency and spectra differed substantially between ancestries, from 195 (4·1%) of 4773 in the east Asian ancestry group to 1505 (52·9%) of 2844 in the African ancestry group. Similarly, LRRK2 causal and risk variants showed ancestry-specific enrichment, with the highest frequencies of causal variants in the Ashkenazi Jewish (250 [10·7%] of 2343) and Middle Eastern (59 [4·4%] of 1347) ancestry groups, whereas risk variants were predominantly identified in the east Asian ancestry group (601 [12·6%] of 4773). Carriers of biallelic causal variants in PRKN, commonly including deletions and duplications, were also identified across all ancestries except Ashkenazi Jewish; the highest frequency was in the Middle Eastern ancestry group (17 [1·3%] of 1347), and frequencies in all other ancestries were less than 1%.

INTERPRETATION: This large-scale, multi-ancestry genetic study offers crucial insights into the population-specific genetic architecture of Parkinson's disease. Whereas clinical trials targeting GBA1 and LRRK2 variant carriers are primarily performed in Europe and the USA, increased ancestral diversity in Parkinson's disease research will be crucial to improve diagnostic accuracy, enhance our understanding of disease mechanisms across populations, and ensure equitable application of and access to emerging genetically informed therapies.