Microplastic-induced female reproductive toxicity: Mechanisms and potential protective interventions

Due to the widespread presence of microplastics (MPs) in the environment, humans are continuously exposed to them through ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact, both intentionally and unintentionally. Once introduced to the body, MPs can accumulate in various tissues and organs. In addition, their ability to adsorb and carry harmful substances may further contribute to adverse health effects. The female reproductive system is particularly vulnerable to the toxic effects of MPs exposure. Studies have shown that MPs can induce oxidative stress, hormonal disruption, inflammation, and ultimately apoptosis. However, the specific mechanisms related to the female reproductive system remain incompletely understood. Hence, this review aims to summarize and evaluate the existing mechanisms involved in MP-induced toxicity effects in the ovary, uterus, placenta, and during the pregnancy period. Furthermore, potential protective interventions are discussed as possible strategies to reduce the accumulation and adverse reproductive effects that MPs may exert on the body.