Leukocytoclastic vasculitis (LCV) is a systemic autoimmune disease characterized by the inflammation of the vascular endothelium. Cutaneous small vessel vasculitis (CSVV) and anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCA)-associated vasculitis (AAV) are two examples of LCV. Advancements in genomic technologies have identified risk haplotypes, genetic variants, susceptibility loci and pathways that are associated with vasculitis immunopathogenesis. The discovery of these genetic factors and their corresponding cellular signaling aberrations have enabled the development and use of novel therapeutic strategies for vasculitis. Personalized medicine aims to provide targeted therapies to individuals who show poor response to conventional interventions. For example, monoclonal antibody therapies have shown remarkable efficacy in achieving disease remission. Here, we discuss pathways involved in disease pathogenesis and the underlying genetic associations in different populations worldwide. Understanding the immunopathogenic pathways in vasculitis and identifying associated genetic variations will facilitate the development of novel and targeted personalized therapies for patients.
Hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) is a unique class of medications that has been widely utilized for the treatment of cancer. HCQ plays a dichotomous role by inhibiting autophagy induced by the tumor microenvironment (TME). Preclinical studies support the use of HCQ for anti-cancer therapy, especially in combination with conventional anti-cancer treatments since they sensitize tumor cells to drugs, potentiating the therapeutic activity. However, clinical evidence has suggested poor outcomes for HCQ due to various obstacles, including non-specific distribution, low aqueous solubility and low bioavailability at target sites, transport across tissue barriers, and retinal toxicity. These issues are addressable via the integration of HCQ with nanotechnology to produce HCQ-conjugated nanomedicines. This review aims to discuss the pharmacodynamic, pharmacokinetic and antitumor properties of HCQ. Furthermore, the antitumor performance of the nanoformulated HCQ is also reviewed thoroughly, aiming to serve as a guide for the HCQ-based enhanced treatment of cancers. The nanoencapsulation or nanoconjugation of HCQ with nanoassemblies appears to be a promising method for reducing the toxicity and improving the antitumor efficacy of HCQ.