The beryllium (Be) concentrations were determined in the shells, opercula and soft tissues of the Nerita lineata and in the surface sediments collected from nine geographical sites of Peninsular Malaysian mangrove area in April 2011. The ranges of Be concentrations (µg/kg dry weight) were: <1.00- 4.00 for shells, <1.00-2.00 for opercula and 3.00-41.00 for soft tissues of N. lineata. For sediments, Be ranges were found between 1200 and 3810 µg/kg dry weight. The distribution of Be was found to be: sediment> soft tissues > shells ≥ opercula. The insignificant (p>0.05) relationships of Be between snails and sediments and low bioaccumulation factor (ratio of soft tissues to sediment) (<1.00), could be attributed to the fact that Be contamination being not serious in the Peninsular Malaysian mangrove area. The snail N. lineata as a good biomonitor of Be needs further investigations. Lastly, Peninsular Malaysia mangrove was not contaminated by Be based on the present findings.
Microneedle (MN) delivery devices are more accepted by people than regular traditional needle injections (e.g. vaccination) due to their simplicity and adaptability. Thus, patients of chronic diseases like diabetes look for alternative pain-free treatment regimens circumventing regular subcutaneous injections. Insulin microneedles (INS-MNs) are a thoughtfully researched topic (1) to overcome needle phobia in patients, (2) for controlled delivery of the peptide, (3) decreasing the frequency of drug administration, (4) to ease the drug administration procedure, and (5) thus increasing patient adherence to the treatment dosage regimes. MNs physically disrupt the hard outer skin layer to create minuscule pores for insulin (INS) to pass through the dermal capillaries into the systemic circulation. Biodegradable polymeric MNs are of greater significance for INS and vaccine delivery than silicon, metal, glass, or non-biodegradable polymeric MNs due to their ease of fabrication, mass production, cost-effectiveness, and bioerodability. In recent years, INS-MNs have been researched to deliver INS through the transdermal implants, buccal mucosa, stomach wall, intestinal mucosal layers, and colonic mucosa apart from the usual transdermal delivery. This review focuses on the design characteristics and the applications of biodegradable/dissolvable polymeric INS-MNs in transdermal, intra-oral, gastrointestinal (GI), and implantable delivery. The prospective approaches to formulate safe, controlled-release INS-MNs were highlighted. Biodegradable/dissolvable polymers, their significance, their impact on MN morphology, and INS release characteristics were outlined. The developments in biodegradable polymeric INS-MN technology were briefly discussed. Bio-erodible polymer selection, MN fabrication and evaluation factors, and other design aspects were elaborated.