Programmed cell death protein 1 or Programmed death-1 (PD-1) and Programmed Cell Death Ligand 1 (PD-L1) research have tremendously been taken into great consideration in the field of cancer immune pharmacology. Cancer immunotherapy has been convoyed by a capable outcome over the past few years. PD-1 and PD-L1 play a pivotal role in attenuating immune involvement, modulating the activity of T-cells, and promoting different types of programmed cell death. Participation of antigen-specific T cells and regulatory T cells and their acute mutations during cancer cell invasion and migration may lead to challenges for three programmed cell death methods, namely, pyroptosis, apoptosis, and necroptosis called "PANoptosis". This review aimed to explore the correlation between the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway in "PANoptosis" using available recently published literature with several schematic representations. Hopefully, the review will facilitate the biomedical scientist targeting cancer immune pharmacological aspect for the management of Breast Adenocarcinoma shortly.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), diabetes has been increasing steadily over the past few decades. In developing countries, it is the cause of increased morbidity and mortality. Diabetes and its complications are associated with education, occupation, and income across all levels of socioeconomic status. Factors, such as hyperglycemia, social ignorance, lack of proper health knowledge, and late access to medical care, can worsen diabetic complications. Amongst the complications, neuropathic pain and inflammation are considered the most common causes of morbidity for common populations. This review is focused on exploring protein kinase C (PKC)-mediated TGF-β regulation in diabetic complications with particular emphasis on allodynia. The role of PKC-triggered TGF-β in diabetic neuropathy is not well explored. This review will provide a better understanding of the PKC-mediated TGF-β regulation in diabetic neuropathy with several schematic illustrations. Neuroinflammation and associated hyperalgesia and allodynia during microvascular complications in diabetes are scientifically illustrated in this review. It is hoped that this review will facilitate biomedical scientists to better understand the etiology and target drugs effectively to manage diabetes and diabetic neuropathy.
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a predominant inflammatory autoimmune disorder. The incidence and prevalence of RA is increasing with considerable morbidity and mortality worldwide. The pathophysiology of RA has become clearer due to many significant research outputs during the last two decades. Many inflammatory cytokines involved in RA pathophysiology and the presence of autoantibodies are being used as potential biomarkers via the use of effective diagnostic techniques for the early diagnosis of RA. Currently, several disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs are being prescribed targeting RA pathophysiology, which have shown significant contributions in improving the disease outcomes.
DISCUSSION: Even though innovations in treatment strategies and monitoring are helping the patients to achieve early and sustained clinical and radiographic remission, the high cost of drugs and limited health care budgets are restricting the easy access of RA treatment. Both direct and indirect high cost of treatment are creating economic burden for the patients and affecting their quality of life.
CONCLUSION: The aim of this review is to describe the updated concept of RA pathophysiology and highlight current diagnostic tools used for the early detection as well as prognosis - targeting several biomarkers of RA. Additionally, we explored the updated treatment options with side effects besides discussing the global economic burden.