Biodiesel, one of the renewable energy sources has gained attention for decades as the alternative fuel due to its remarkable properties. However, there are several drawbacks from the industrial production of biodiesel such as the spike in the production cost, environmental issues related to the usage of homogeneous catalyst and profitability in long term. One of the solutions to eliminate the problem is by utilizing low cost starting material such as palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD). PFAD is a byproduct from the refining of crude palm oil and abundantly available. Esterification of PFAD to biodiesel will be much easier with the presence of heterogeneous acid catalyst. Most of acid catalyst preparation involves series of heating process using conventional method. In this study, microwave was utilized in catalyst preparation, significantly reducing the reaction time from conventional heating method. The catalyst produced was characterized using X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), Brunauer Emmet and Teller (BET), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Temperature-Programmed Desorption - Ammonia (TPD-NH3) and Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) while percentage yield and conversion of the PFAD were analysed by gas chromatography - flame ionization detector (GC-FID) and acid-base titration, respectively. It has been demonstrated that the percentage yield of biodiesel from the PFAD by employing sulfonated glucose acid catalyst (SGAC) reached 98.23% under the following conditions: molar ratio of methanol to PFAD of 10:1, catalyst loading of 2.5% and reaction temperature of 70oC. The microwave-assisted SGAC showed its potential to replace the SGAC produced via conventional heating method.
Unilamellar liposomes composed of dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) were prepared by the reverse-phase
evaporation method and extrusion through a polycarbonate membrane filter. Liposomes at 0.7 mg/mL lipid concentration
in deionized water were exposed to gamma irradiation at a dose in the range 0.5 to 25 kGy. Gamma irradiation of
liposomes resulted in the degradation of DPPC lipids into free fatty acids, lysophosphatidylcholine and 1,2-palmitoylphosphatidic
acid (DPPA). The effect of gamma irradiation towards the physical stability of liposomes was investigated
by means of dynamic light scattering (DLS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and zeta potential analysis. From
the DLS analysis, no significant changes were observed in the hydrodynamic size of liposomes. TEM images indicate that
the liposomes surface became smoother and rounder as higher irradiation doses were applied. Zeta potential analysis
showed that gamma irradiation of DPPC liposomes at radiation doses as low as 0.5 kGy resulted in a drastic rise in the
magnitude of the zeta potential. The results also demonstrate that gamma irradiation of liposomes suspension enhanced
the overall stability of liposomes. Hence, it can be concluded that gamma irradiation on DPPC liposomes may potentially
produce liposomes with higher stability.
A series of ester compounds derived from ricinoleic acid to be used as biolubricants base stock have been synthesized. The resulting products were confirmed by FTIR and NMR analyses. The synthesis was carried out in three stages: epoxidation of ricinoleic acid; synthesis of 10,12-dihydroxy-9-acyloxystearic acid from epoxidized ricinoleic acid with various fatty acids and esterification of the acyloxystearic acid products with octanol to yield octyl-10,12-dihydroxy-9-acyloxystearate. The viscosities, flash points and pour points (PP) behavior of the products were measured. The resulting esters had an increased in molar weight and viscosity and decreased in pour points as compared to ricinoleic acid.
The Cassava starch manufacturing wastewater (CSW) was used as a substrate to produce polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) by Cupriavidus sp. KKU38. The acidogenic fermentation process of CSW was first conducted to obtain volatile fatty acids (VFAs), which are more efficient in PHB production than raw CSW. The effect on substrate concentration and nutrients, i.e. nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations, by means of chemical oxygen demand: nitrogen: phosphorus ratio (COD:N:P ratio) variation was investigated. The results indicated that PHB production from fermented CSW by Cupriavidus sp. KKU38 was optimized at the soluble COD:N:P ratio of 100:0.5:11. This ratio gave the maximum PHB content and yield of 85.53% and 0.31 g PHB/g COD consumed, respectively. By using the proposed PHB production process, the potential to produce 0.19 kg of PHB from 1.0 kg of soluble chemical oxygen demand (sCOD) contained in CSW was exhibited. The relatively high COD removal efficiency of 73.82% at the optimal condition could be achieved, which demonstrated the concept of water quality improvements alongside the production of the value-added by-product, PHB.
A comparative study on the fatty acids contents of three Malaysian marine fishes Tenualosa toli (Terubok), Rastrelliger kanagurta (Kembong), Stolephorus baganensis (Bilis) and three freshwater fishes Channa striatus (Haruan), Pangasius hypothalamus (Patin), Clarias macrocephalus (Keli) were carried out. Marine fishes showed more unsaturated fatty acids with 3, 4, 5 and 6 double bonds than in freshwater fishes. Two n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs); eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docasahaexaenoic acid (DHA) were found more in marine fishes PUFAs than in freshwater fishes. Based on the fatty acids content of DHA, EPA and arachidonic acid (AA), Stolephorus baganensis provides the best source of it (4.68%,10.5%, 4.68%) followed by Rastrelliger kanagurta (10.62%, 4.85%, 3.17%) and Tenualosa toli (9.93%, 2.50%, 0.16%). However, freshwater fishes showed small range of DHA (0.63% - 1.41%), EPA (0.11% - 0.25%) and AA (1.41% - 4.46%). Saturated fatty acids palmitic was the major fatty acid found in all fishes studied.
The effect of corn silk or Zea mays extract on the physicochemical changes of virgin coconut oil was studied during three consecutive days of deep frying. There were three types of oil blend systems used: virgin coconut oil without antioxidant as control system; virgin coconut oil with butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) as synthetic antioxidant and virgin coconut oil with Zea mays extract as natural antioxidant. The oil quality was assessed by measuring the colour, viscosity, peroxide, p-anisidine, free fatty acids, totox and iodine value. The results show that Zea mays extract delayed the oil deterioration. The Zea mays extract significantly (p<0.05) lowered the rate of oxidation in virgin coconut oil compared to control oil and was comparable to BHT. Zea mays extract did not change the sensory profiles of French fries which was shown by insignificant difference (p<0.05) between Zea mays and control fries for all sensory attributes (colour, taste, aroma, crispiness, oiliness and overall quality). In general, the Zea may extract was capable of extending the stability and quality of virgin coconut oil and therefore has potential as new source of natural antioxidant for use in deep frying.
The objective of this study was to determine the nutrient composition of selected commercial biscuits in Malaysia. A total
of six brands from each type of biscuit (chocolate chip, corn, cracker with sugar, vegetable flavoured cracker, cream
filled, oatmeal, shortbread and fully coated chocolate wafer) and five brands of wholemeal crackers were sampled
from local supermarkets in the Klang Valley. The total energy content in commercial biscuits was ranging from 453.30
to 499.25 kcal/100 g. Carbohydrate was the major macronutrient in commercial biscuits ranging from 56.86 to 66.07
g/100 g. The highest protein content was found in the wholemeal crackers (9.92 g/100 g) and the lowest protein content
was found in the cream filled biscuits (5.65 g/100 g). Fat content lay in the range of 16.89 to 25.75 g/100 g. The major
minerals detected in biscuits were sodium, followed by calcium and magnesium. The vitamin content in A and E of the
biscuits examined was almost comparable. Small quantities of trans fatty acids were detected in all biscuits in the range
of 0.02 to 0.68 g/100 g. These findings indicate that Malaysian commercial biscuits are a good source of carbohydrate
(34.12-39.64 g per serving), calcium (26.09-384.67 g per serving), magnesium (10.42-37.24 g per serving) and contain
low proportion of trans fatty acids (0.01-0.41 g per serving).
Fats and oils in human diets are the main sources of essential fatty acids for the body. However, there is a mounting concern about the intake of foods containing trans fatty acids (TFAs) due to their deleterious effects on human. Thus, the accurate detection of fatty acids (FAs) and TFAs is needed to control and correct nutrition labeling in dietary fat samples. Accordingly, a method for the identification and quantification of FAs and TFAs in food fats by gas chromatography (GC) based on the extraction of lipids and derivatization using base catalyzed followed by trimethylsilyl-diazomethane (TMS-DM) was developed. The proposed method was evaluated to standard mixture of oleic acid (OA) (C18:1cis 9) and Elaidic acid (EA) (C18:1 trans 9) and its application to three samples of commercial margarines was demonstrated. Based on the results obtained, recovery values (R) from all the samples were close to 100%. Repeatability (RSD) values ranged between 0.78 and 2.47%, while Reproducibility (RSD) values ranged between 1.14 and 3.65%. Consequently, the proposed method is sensitive, accurate and suitable for FAs and TFAs analysis of food fats and oils and can be applied to nutritional, medicine and food studies.
Matched MeSH terms: Fatty Acids, Essential; Trans Fatty Acids
The crude oil of Malaysian castor bean Ricinus communis L. seed was extracted by Soxhlet method using hexane. The physicochemical characteristics of castor bean oil were evaluated. The results showed that Malaysian castor seeds contain a relatively high percentage of total lipids content; 43.3% (per dry weight), high iodine value (84.5 mg/g) and saponification value (182.96 mg/g). The seed oil moisture content, acid value and free fatty acid percentage (% FFA) were 0.2%, 4.88 mg/g and 3.4%, respectively. The unsaturated fatty acids (UFA) content were 97.5% of the total fatty acids composition. Ricinoleic acid comprises over 84% while other fatty acids present were linoleic (7.3%), oleic (5.5%), palmitic (1.3%), stearic (1.2%) and linolenic (0.5%), respectively. Five types of castor bean seed oil triacylglycerols were identified as triricinolein, RRR (84.1%), diricinoleoylstearoylglycerol, RRS (8.2%), diricinoleoyloleoyl-glycerol, RRO (5.6%), diricinoleoyllinoleoylglycerol, RRL (1.2%) and diricinoleoylpalmitoyl-glycerol, RRP (0.9%) respectively.
The fractions of fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) i.e. crude palm oil methyl esters (CPOME), RBD palm olein methyl esters (RBD Palm Olein ME) and used frying oil methyl esters (UFOME) rich in unsaturated fatty esters were used to prepare alkenyl succinic anhydrides (ASA). The fractions were obtained via fractional distillation that separated the unsaturated fatty esters from the saturated fatty esters. The fractions with the highest content of unsaturated fatty esters were reacted with maleic anhydride (MA) for 8 hours at 240oC with the MA/FAME ratio of 1.5. The reaction was conducted without catalyst and solvent. The crude alkenyl succinic anhydride (ASA) obtained was purified by column chromatography. The purified compound was characterised by FTIR.
In recent years, issues regading safety and wellness of dietary oils and fats have received major attention. This is particularly so in the case of structured modified fats, which are being used extensively to meet the product-specific demand primarily in bakery industry as shortenings, cocoa butter substitutes in confectionary industry, and in margarine preparation, as butter substitute. During modification stages, native oils and fats are subjected to different physical and chemical treatments such as fractionation, hydrogenation and interesterification in order to produce fats with desirable
physical as well as functional properties. Numerous studies have demonstrated the adverse health effects of these modified oils and fats, especially trans fatty acids, using animal models as well as human volunteers. Consequently, the decadesold process of partial hydrogenation of oils has been abandoned in most nations. However, alternative technologies to hydrogenation are on rise, creating new trends in modified oils and fats synthesis to cater food industry needs that may have unforeseeable consequences on human health.
The aim of this study was to evaluate on how heat treatments by microwave oven may affect the oxidative degradation of sunflower oil (SFO) and its blend with palm olein (Po). The blend was prepared in the volume ratio of 40:60 (Po: SFO, PSF). The samples were exposed to microwave heating at medium power setting, for different periods. In this study, refractive index, free fatty acid content, peroxide value, p-anisidine value, total oxidation (Tomx), specific extinction, viscosity, polymer content, polar compounds and food oil sensor value of the oils all increased, whereas iodine value and C 18:21C16:0 ratio decreased as microwave heating progressed. Microwave heating temperature increased with increasing heating time and longer heating times resulted in a greater degree of oil deterioration. The percentage of linoleic acid tended to decrease, whereas the percentage of palmitic acid increased. The effect of adding PO to SFO on the formation of free fatty acids and conjugated dienes during microwave treatment was not significant (p< 0.05). No significant differences in food oil sensor value was observed between SFO and PSF. Based on the most oxidative stability criteria, it can be concluded that the microwave heating caused the formation of comparatively lower amounts of oxidation products in PSF compared to SFO, indicating a lower extent of oxidative degradation of PSF.
The efficacy of pandan leaf extract (PLE) addition on the oxidative degradation of sunflower oil (SFO) during microwave heating was studied. 80% of methanol extract showed better antioxidant action than the 100% methanol or ethanol extract and the total phenolic contents, DPPH radical scavenging activity and linoleic acid system of PLE were found to be 1845.50 mg GAE/100 g, 60.62-89.87% and 82.21%, respectively. 80% of methanolic extracts at different concentrations (0.1, 0.2 and 0.4 wt. %) were added to SFO. The antioxidant treated and control oil samples were subjected to microwave heating and were analyzed at regular intervals for the extent of oxidative changes following the measurements of peroxide value, p-anisidine value, TOTOX, free fatty acid, specific extinction, iodine value, viscosity, polar compounds and fatty acid composition. The PLE were found to be quite effective towards suppressing the primary and secondary oxidation products in the tested oil. The order of effectiveness (p<0.05) was BHA > 0.4% PLE > 0.2% PLE > 0.1% PLE > control. The present results suggested that antioxidant extract from pandan leaf might be used to protect vegetable oils from oxidation.
The lichen collection from Bukit Larut, Taiping, Malaysia in 1999 included Bulbothrix isidiza, Chrysothrix xanthina, Cladonia adspersa, C. verticillata, Coccocarpia palmicola, Heterodermia flabellata, H. japonica, H. obscurata, Hypotrachyna imbricatula, Leptogium azureum, Parmelinella wallichiana, Parmotrema tinctorum, P. clavuliferum, P. reticulatum, Pertusaria sp., Physma byrsaeum, Usnea baileyi and Usnea rubrotincta. Secondary metabolites could not be detected in three lichens, Coccocarpia palmicola, Leptogium azureum and Physma byrsaeum by HPLC and TLC analysis. The other 15 lichen species showed the presence of ten classes of compounds, depsides (10 compounds), depsidones (16), quinones (5), xanthones (2), naphthopyrones (1), pulvinic acid derivatives (1), diphenylethers (1), dibenzofurans (1), aliphatic acids (4) and terpenoids (3).
Oil palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) contributes to a large quantity of lignocellulosic waste. It is an abundantly available
waste biomass in Malaysia. This project was aimed to utilize the waste materials for a better benefit. EFB were used as
raw material to prepare a new solid catalyst for biodiesel production. Solid acid catalyst derived from EFB was used to
catalyze the esterification process in biodiesel production from waste cooking oil. Solid acid catalyst was prepared by
direct impregnation with transition metal sulfides, Fe2
(SO4
)3
. This new catalyst was used to catalyze the esterification of
high free fatty acid (FFA) value oil, e.g. waste cooking oils (WCOs) as pre-treatment step prior to biodiesel production.
The highest catalytic activity with 90.95% esterification rate was achieved. The catalyst can be easily separated for
reuse compared to homogenous catalyst which are used in biodiesel production. EFB has the potential to be converted
into useful feedstock and the derived catalyst can replace the traditional liquid acid catalyst in biodiesel production
especially for high acid value content feedstock.
The seeds of C. cleomifolia (locally known as kacang hantu) collected along Simpang Pulai - Berinchang Road, Cameron Highlands, was defatted with hexane and the resulting oil was analysed for their physico-chemical properties. The percentage yield of the oil was calculated as 5.3%. The acid value (1.2%), iodine value (85), peroxide value (0.6), saponification value (192.0) and unsaponifiable matter (2.3%) were determined to assess the quality of the oil. The physico-chemical characterisation showed that C. cleomifolia seeds oil is unsaturated semi-drying oil, with high saponifi cation and acidic values. The fatty acid composition of C. cleomifolia seed oil was determined by Gas Chromatography and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (ToF). The seed oil of C. cleomifolia contained linoleic acid (57.59%) and palmitic acid (5.07%), the most abundant unsaturated and saturated fatty acids, respectively. The polyunsaturated triacylglycerol (TAG) in C. cleomifolia seed oil determined by reverse phase High performance Liquid Chromatography; contained as PLL (18.04%) followed by POL + SLL (11.92%), OOL (7.04%) and PLLn (6.31%). The melting and cooling point of the oil were 16.22°C and -33.54°C, respectively
As fossil energy resources are depleting quick and energy security is playing a vital role in the world economy. Quest for alternative energy sources have turned researches investigation in waste foods for next generation fuel. Biodiesel is usually considered to be environmentally friendly as it reduces greenhouse gas emission. Fish wastes rich in fatty acids and can be used as the raw material to produce biodiesel through transesterification reaction. The results showed that the seven peaks are fatty acid methyl esters, indicating all the triglycerides were successfully methylated to methyl esters. Fish based biodiesel provided a significant reduction in carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbon (HC) emissions under engine loads of 15 (Nm) and required no engine modification. The viscosity of the produced biodiesel was within the range of international standards (ASTM). The biodiesel was found to contain a low base number and exhibited a lower specific fuel consumption compared to the conventional diesel. It can be concluded that biodiesel derived from waste fish oil can be considered as a potential source of commercial biodiesel.
Glycerol is a valuable co-product from oleochemical industry such as from fatty acid and biodiesel production. By having three hydroxyl groups in its molecule, glycerol can undergo chemical modifications that lead to many possible applications. This paper reports the tosylation process of glycerol with para-toluenesulfonyl chloride (p-TsCl). Reaction of glycerol with p-TsCl in the presence of a base produced mono-, di- and tri-tosylate of glycerol even though the reaction was carried out at the mole ratio of 1.2:1.0 of glycerol to p-TsCl. The compounds were successfully isolated and characterized. Mono-, di- and tri-tosylate of glycerol exhibited inhibitory activity against Staphylococcus aureus (gram positive bacteria) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (gram negative bacteria).
Increased the consumption of polyunsaturated (PUFA) and omega-3 fatty acid may be one of the strategies to prevent
morbidity and mortality among elderly. This study aimed to identify the plasma fatty acid profile and intake among
older adults who aged successfully (SA) as compared to the usual agers (UA). This cross-sectional comparative study
was conducted among 48 SA (mean age 66.4+4.7 years old) and 42 UA (mean age 68.4+4.8 years old). The plasma fatty
acid profile was determined using gas chromatography. Fatty acid intake was measured by using the validated Fatty
Acid Omega-3 intake food frequency questionnaire. The percentage of saturated fatty acids (SFA) in blood plasma of
UA (men 62.2+6.4%, women 62.9+7.0%) were significantly higher (p<0.05) compared to SA (men 53.7+15.8%, women
57.1+9.5%). On the other hand, the percentage of monounsaturated (MUFA), polyunsaturated (PUFA) omega-3 and
omega-6 fatty acids were the opposites. Fatty acids intake among SA was higher compared to UA. SFA (SA=5.0+2.5%,
UA=4.6+2.9%) and total omega-3 (SA=0.5+0.4%, UA=0.4+0.3%) intakes met the recommended nutrient intake (RNI).
However, mean intakes of MUFA (SA=5.3+2.4%, UA=4.7+2.7%) and linoleic acid (LA) (SA=0.5+0.7%, UA=0.3+0.5%)
were below than the RNI. Percentages of subjects who did not meet the RNI for omega-3 and MUFA were 44.2% and 97.7%
for SA and 47.4% and 95% for UA, respectively. SA had a higher level of plasma PUFA and MUFA, but lower in SFA when
compared to UA. MUFA and LA were more likely to be inadequate in the diet of older adults, particularly the UA.
Dementia poses a major global burden of care to society and health systems in ageing populations. The majority (over 60%) of persons with dementia in the world are found in Asia and developing countries with rapid rates of population ageing. Improving and maintaining the cognitive health of older persons is vital to national strategies for dementia prevention. Increasing numbers of population-based ageing cohort studies in the past decade have provided a better understanding of the factors that contribute to cognitive function and decline in old age. The roles of major demographic, psychosocial, lifestyle, behavioral and cardiovascular risk factors contributing to cognitive health were discussed using examples from the Singapore Longitudinal Ageing Studies. They include socio-demographic factors, particularly education and marital status, leisure time activity such as physical activity, social engagement and mental activities, psychological factors such as depression, cardiovascular and metabolic risk factors: obesity, diabetes, hypertension and dyslipidemia, and the metabolic syndrome, under-nutrition, low albumin, low hemoglobin, nutritional factors such as blood folate, B12 and homocysteine, omega-3 poly-unsaturated fatty acids, tea drinking and curcumin-rich turmeric in curry meals. These factors are found to be associated variously with cognitive functions (memory and learning, language, visuospatial, attention and information processing speed), rates of cognitive impairment and cognitive decline, or increased risk of developing MCI and progression to dementia.