The skin is the first line of defense against pathogen and other environmental pollutant. The body is constantly exposed to reactive oxygen species (ROS) that stimulates inflammatory process in the skin. Many studies have linked ROS to various inflammatory skin diseases. Patients with skin diseases face various challenges with inefficient and inappropriate treatment in managing skin diseases. Overproduction of ROS in the body will result in oxidative stress which will lead to various cellular damage and alter normal cell function. Multiple signaling pathways are seen to have significant effects during ROS-mediated oxidative stress. In this review, microalgae have been selected as a source of natural-derived antioxidant to combat inflammatory skin diseases that are prominent in today's society. Several studies have demonstrated that bioactive compounds isolated from microalgae have anti-inflammation and anti-oxidative properties that can help remedy various skin diseases. These compounds are able to inhibit production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and reduce the expression of inflammatory genes. Bioactive compounds from microalgae work in action by altering enzyme activities, regulating cellular activities, targeting major signaling pathways related to inflammation.
We report two cases of metoclopramide-induced acute dystonia in pregnant women and consider the role of genetic variation in the pathogenesis of the adverse effect. By whole-gene sequencing, we found that both women were CYP2D6 poor metabolizers. We theorize that CYP2D6 governs the risk of metoclopramide-related acute dystonia through its role in the synthesis of serotonin, which inhibits the dopamine tone. The effect of CYP2D6 poor metabolism is exaggerated by rises in the estrogen levels during pregnancy, as the hormone augments dopamine sensitivity. Together, the two factors may create a hyper-dopaminergic state that is easily upset by metoclopramide, resulting in acute dystonia.
Phytotherapy is an emerging field successfully utilized to treat various chronic diseases including alcohol dependence. In the present study, we examined the effect of the standardized methanolic extract of Morinda citrifolia Linn. unripe fruit (MMC), on compulsive ethanol-seeking behavior using the mouse conditioned place preference (CPP) test. CPP was established by injections of ethanol (2 g/kg, i.p.) in a 12-day conditioning schedule in mice. The effect of MMC and the reference drug, acamprosate (ACAM), on the reinforcing properties of ethanol in mice was studied by the oral administration of MMC (1, 3, and 5 g/kg) and ACAM (300 mg/kg) 60 min prior to the final CPP test postconditioning. Furthermore, CPPs weakened with repeated testing in the absence of ethanol over the next 12 days (extinction), during which the treatment groups received MMC (1, 3, and 5 g/kg, p.o.) or ACAM (300 mg/kg, p.o.). Finally, a priming injection of a low dose of ethanol (0.4 g/kg, i.p.) in the home cage (Reinstatement) was sufficient to reinstate CPPs, an effect that was challenged by the administration of MMC or ACAM. MMC (3 and 5 g/kg, p.o.) and ACAM (300 mg/kg, p.o.) significantly reversed the establishment of ethanol-induced CPPs and effectively facilitated the extinction of ethanol CPP. In light of these findings, it has been suggested that M. citrifolia unripe fruit could be utilized for novel drug development to combat alcohol dependence.
Background: Kratom or Mitragyna speciosa Korth has been widely used to relieve the severity of opioid withdrawal in natural settings. However, several studies have reported that kratom may by itself cause dependence following chronic consumption. Yet, there is currently no formal treatment for kratom dependence. Mitragynine, is the major psychoactive alkaloid in kratom. Chronic mitragynine treatment can cause addiction-like symptoms in rodent models including withdrawal behaviour. In this study we assessed whether the prescription drugs, methadone, buprenorphine and clonidine, could mitigate mitragynine withdrawal effects. In order to assess treatment safety, we also evaluated hematological, biochemical and histopathological treatment effects. Methods: We induced mitragynine withdrawal behaviour in a chronic treatment paradigm in rats. Methadone (1.0 mg/kg), buprenorphine (0.8 mg/kg) and clonidine (0.1 mg/kg) were i.p. administered over four days during mitragynine withdrawal. These treatments were stopped and withdrawal sign assessment continued. Thereafter, toxicological profiles of the treatments were evaluated in the blood and in organs. Results: Chronic mitragynine treatment caused significant withdrawal behaviour lasting at least 5 days. Methadone, buprenorphine, as well as clonidine treatments significantly attenuated these withdrawal signs. No major effects on blood or organ toxicity were observed. Conclusion: These data suggest that the already available prescription medications methadone, buprenorphine, and clonidine are capable to alleviate mitragynine withdrawal signs rats. This may suggest them as treatment options also for problematic mitragynine/kratom use in humans.
Though cancer therapeutics can successfully eradicate cancerous cells, the effectiveness of these medications is mostly restricted to several deleterious side effects. Therefore, to alleviate these side effects, antioxidant supplementation is often warranted, reducing reactive species levels and mitigating persistent oxidative damage. Thus, it can impede the growth of cancer cells while protecting the normal cells simultaneously. Moreover, antioxidant supplementation alone or in combination with chemotherapeutics hinders further tumor development, prevents chemoresistance by improving the response to chemotherapy drugs, and enhances cancer patients' quality of life by alleviating side effects. Preclinical and clinical studies have been revealed the efficacy of using phytochemical and dietary antioxidants from different sources in treating chemo and radiation therapy-induced toxicities and enhancing treatment effectiveness. In this context, algae, both micro and macro, can be considered as alternative natural sources of antioxidants. Algae possess antioxidants from diverse groups, which can be exploited in the pharmaceutical industry. Despite having nutritional benefits, investigation and utilization of algal antioxidants are still in their infancy. This review article summarizes the prospective anticancer effect of twenty-three antioxidants from microalgae and their potential mechanism of action in cancer cells, as well as usage in cancer therapy. In addition, antioxidants from seaweeds, especially from edible species, are outlined, as well.
Currently, the search to identify treatments and vaccines for novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) are ongoing. Desperation within the community, especially among the middle-and low-income groups acutely affected by the economic impact of forced lockdowns, has driven increased interest in exploring alternative choices of medicinal plant-based therapeutics. This is evident with the rise in unsubstantiated efficacy claims of these interventions circulating on social media. Based on enquiries received, our team of researchers was given the chance to produce evidence summaries evaluating the potential of complementary interventions in COVID-19 management. Here, we present and discuss the findings of four selected medicinal plants (Nigella sativa, Vernonia amygdalina, Azadirachta indica, Eurycoma longifolia), with reported antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory effects that might be interesting for further investigation. Our findings showed that only A. indica reported positive antiviral evidence specific to the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) based on preliminary in silico data while all four medicinal plants demonstrated differential anti-inflammatory or immunomodulatory effects. The definitive roles of these medicinal plants in cytokine storms and post-infection complications remains to be further investigated. Quality control and standardisation of medicinal plant-based products also needs to be emphasized. However, given the unprecedented challenges faced, ethnopharmacological research should be given a fair amount of consideration for contribution in this pandemic.
Aim: Medication non-adherence has remained a common and costly global health issue of growing importance among older adults. This study aims to determine the prevalence and associated factors related to medication non-adherence among older adult stroke survivors in China. Methods and results: In this cross-sectional study, a total of 402 older adult stroke survivors were recruited from three tertiary hospitals in China. The results of the survey showed that 61.4% exhibited medication non-adherence. The chances of medication non-adherence among older adult stroke survivors who had primary school or less educational levels were higher than those who had senior secondary and junior college educational levels [OR (95% CI) = 0.440(0.249, 0.778)] as well as those who had a bachelor's degree or above educational levels [OR (95%CI) = 0.367(0.202, 0.667)]. Moreover, the probability of medication non-adherence with 4-5 and ≥6 types of total prescription medications per day increased by 1.993 times [OR (95% CI) = 1.993(1.190, 3.339))] and 2.233 times [OR (95%CI) = 2.233(1.159, 4.300)], respectively, as compared to when there were ≤3 types. Furthermore, medication non-adherence decreased with the increase in health literacy scores (β = -0.641 (95% CI; (0.913, 0.965)) and BMQ specific-necessity scores (β = -0.131 (95% CI; 0.806, 0.995)). On the other hand, when the BMQ specific-concerns score increased by one unit, medication non-adherence increased by 11.1% [OR (95% CI) = 1.111(1.044, 1.182)]. Conclusion: The present study found that patient medication adherence among older adult stroke survivors in China is problematic and associated with educational levels, total prescribed drugs per day, beliefs about medication, and health literacy scores. This indicates that measures should be taken to enhance medication adherence among such higher-risk populations.
Clinacanthus nutans has had a long history of use in folk medicine in Malaysia and Southeast Asia; mostly in the relief of inflammatory conditions. In this study, we investigated the effects of different extracts of C. nutans upon lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced inflammation in order to identify its mechanism of action. Extracts of leaves and stem bark of C. nutans were prepared using polar and non-polar solvents to produce four extracts, namely polar leaf extract (LP), non-polar leaf extract (LN), polar stem extract (SP), and non-polar stem extracts (SN). The extracts were standardized by determining its total phenolic and total flavonoid contents. Its anti-inflammatory effects were assessed on LPS induced nitrite release in RAW264.7 macrophages and Toll-like receptor (TLR-4) activation in TLR-4 transfected human embryonic kidney cells (HEK-Blue(TM)-hTLR4 cells). The levels of inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-12p40, and IL-17) in treated RAW264.7 macrophages were quantified to verify its anti-inflammatory effects. Western blotting was used to investigate the effect of the most potent extract (LP) on TLR-4 related inflammatory proteins (p65, p38, ERK, JNK, IRF3) in RAW264.7 macrophages. All four extracts produced a significant, concentration-dependent reduction in LPS-stimulated nitric oxide, LPS-induced TLR-4 activation in HEK-Blue(TM)-hTLR4 cells and LPS-stimulated cytokines production in RAW264.7 macrophages. The most potent extract, LP, also inhibited all LPS-induced TLR-4 inflammatory proteins. These results provide a basis for understanding the mechanisms underlying the previously demonstrated anti-inflammatory activity of C. nutans extracts.
The aim of this study was to evaluate the cytotoxic potential of a novel nickel(II) complex (NTC) against WiDr and HT-29 human colon cancer cells by determining the IC50 using the standard MTT assay. The NTC displayed a strong suppressive effect on colon cancer cells with an IC50 value of 6.07 ± 0.22 μM and 6.26 ± 0.13 μM against WiDr and HT-29 respectively, after 24 h of treatment. Substantial reduction in the mitochondrial membrane potential and increase in the release of cytochrome c from the mitochondria directed the induction of the intrinsic apoptosis pathway by the NTC. Activation of this pathway was further evidenced by significant activation of caspase 3/7 and 9. The NTC was also shown to activate the extrinsic pathway of apoptosis via activation of caspase-8 which is linked to the suppression of NF-κB translocation to the nucleus. Cell cycle arrest in the G1 phase was confirmed by flow cytometry and up-regulation of glutathione reductase expression was quantified by qPCR. Results of the current work indicates that NTC possess a potent cancer cell abolishing activity by simultaneous induction of intrinsic and extrinsic pathways of apoptosis in colon cancer cell lines.
Zingiber zerumbet (L) Smith is part of the Zingiberaceae family, one of the largest families of the plant kingdom. Z. zerumbet is a perennial, aromatic and tuberose plant that grows in humid locations where its center of distribution is located in the South-East Asia region. This plant has been traditionally used in foods and beverages and for ornamental purposes. Although many studies have reported on the biomedical applications of Z. zerumbet, the anti-allergic effects of Z. zerumbet and its major bioactive compounds have not yet been summarized in detail. Many major metabolites that have been reported to contain anti-allergic properties are terpene compounds which can be found in the essential oil extracted from the rhizomes of Z. zerumbet, such as zerumbone, limonene, and humulene. The rhizome is among the part of Z. zerumbet that has been widely used for many studies due to its exceptional biomedical applications. Most of these studies have shown that the essential oil, which can be obtained through hydro-distillation of the rhizomes from Z. zerumbet, is enriched with various active metabolites. Therefore, this mini-review provides an overview of the main aspects related to the anti-allergic and immunomodulatory properties of the major bioactive compounds found in the essential oils extracted from the rhizomes of Z. zerumbet, with the aim of demonstrating the importance of essential oil extracted from the rhizomes of Z. zerumbet and its bioactive compounds in the treatment of allergy and allergy-related diseases, in addition to other widely reported and extensively studied biomedical applications.
Counterfeit and substandard medicines are recognized as one of serious threats to public health. The product quality of antibacterial medicine will compromise patients' recovery and increase the chance of antibacterial resistance. The review aims to provide a summary of low quality levofloxacin issues and the risk factors as well as suggesting the aspects of product quality that need to be regulated strictly. Quality of the active ingredient, levofloxacin, has an important role to contribute to successful therapy. The poor quality of raw material, directly and indirectly, causes treatment failure as the presence of insufficient dose, mislabeled content, and poor dissolution characteristics can lead to lower bioavailability. Identifying and reporting these factors can potentially help in improving the quality of drug marketed in various developing countries and may also reduce the incidences of treatment failure. Dissolution test is used for testing the dissolution profiles and the rate of drug release from solid formulation such as oral formulations, thus providing information regarding the in vivo performance of a formulation and its bioequivalence. On the other hand, quality-testing procedures are used for comparing the quality of products.
The prevalence of allergic diseases such as asthma, allergic rhinitis, food allergy and atopic dermatitis has increased dramatically in recent decades. Conventional therapies for allergy can induce undesirable effects and hence patients tend to seek alternative therapies like natural compounds. Considering the fact above, there is an urgency to discover potential medicinal plants as future candidates in the development of novel anti-allergic therapeutic agents. The Lamiaceae family, or mint family, is a diverse plant family which encompasses more than 7,000 species and with a cosmopolitan distribution. A number of species from this family has been widely employed as ethnomedicine against allergic inflammatory skin diseases and allergic asthma in traditional practices. Phytochemical analysis of the Lamiaceae family has reported the presence of flavonoids, flavones, flavanones, flavonoid glycosides, monoterpenes, diterpenes, triterpenoids, essential oil and fatty acids. Numerous investigations have highlighted the anti-allergic activities of Lamiaceae species with their active principles and crude extracts. Henceforth, this review has the ultimate aim of compiling the up-to-date (2018) findings of published scientific information about the anti-allergic activities of Lamiaceae species. In addition, the botanical features, medicinal uses, chemical constituents and toxicological studies of Lamiaceae species were also documented. The method employed for data collection in this review was mainly the exploration of the PubMed, Ovid and Scopus databases. Additional research studies were obtained from the reference lists of retrieved articles. This comprehensive summarization serves as a useful resource for a better understanding of Lamiaceae species. The anti-allergic mechanisms related to Lamiaceae species are also reviewed extensively which aids in future exploration of the anti-allergic potential of Lamiaceae species.
Background: Beka (Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz) has been used as a culinary herb and natural remedy by the local communities in Malaysia. The leaf of O. indicum is traditionally used for the treatment of diarrhea, high blood pressure, and improving digestive health. Objectives: The present study was conducted to evaluate the phytochemical constituents and wound healing properties (in vitro and in vivo models) of aqueous and ethanol extracts of O. indicum leaves. Methods: The total phenolic (TPC) and total flavonoid (TFC) contents in the plant extracts were determined by the spectrophotometric methods. Further, the extract was characterized by Liquid Chromatography Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (LC-TOF-MS/MS) and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). The wound healing activity was assessed using the in vitro scratch wound-healing assay and in vivo excisional wound model. Results: The results show the ethanol leaves extract had the higher TPC (164 mg GAE/g) when compared with the aqueous leaves extract (30 mg gallic acid equivalents/g). The ethanol leaves extract was also found to have higher TFC (101 mg Catechin equivalents/g) than the aqueous leaves extract (76 mg Catechin equivalents/g). The ethanol leaves extract was then used for further chemical analysis. The LC-TOF-MS/MS analysis showed that the leaves extracts of O. indicum contains many important compounds such as Orientin, Chrysin, Pinoquercetin, Cupressuflavone, Puerarin xyloside, Forsythiaside and Paederoside. In GC-MS analysis, 19 compounds were identified in ethanolic leaves extract. The wound healing studies shows that O. indicum has promising wound healing activity by increasing the rate of wound contraction significantly (p < 0.05). Conclusion: In conclusion, the present study showed that O. indicum leaf contains important phytochemicals and the wound healing potential of the O. indicum extract may probably be as a result of the presence of various phytoconstituents.
Parallel to the growing use of kratom, there is a wealth of evidence from self-report, preclinical, and early clinical studies on therapeutic benefits of its alkaloids in particular for treating pain, managing substance use disorder, and coping with emotional or mental health conditions. On the other hand, there are also reports on potential health risks concerning kratom use. These two aspects are often discussed in reviews on kratom. Here, we aim to highlight specific areas that are of importance to give insights into the mechanistic of kratom alkaloids pharmacological actions. This includes their interactions with drug-metabolizing enzymes and predictions of clinical drug-drug interactions, receptor-binding properties, interactions with cellular barriers in regards to barrier permeability, involvement of membrane transporters, and alteration of barrier function when exposed to the alkaloids.
The prevalence of Alzheimer's disease (AD) has increased with the fast growing of aging population, thereby posing great challenges to provision of care for AD patients. Pharmacists play a vital role in the management of AD; this includes recognizing early symptoms of AD, providing medication counseling to AD patients and their caretakers, and identifying potential adverse drug reactions. A comprehensive understanding of the disease progression, as well as the pharmacological therapy, is essential to provide effective care to AD patients. The level of knowledge about AD among the pharmacists, however, remains unknown. Hence, this study aimed to assess the knowledge on AD among the pharmacists in public hospitals and health clinics and its correlates. A clear picture of the characteristics associated with different levels of knowledge could facilitate the targeted re-training of pharmacists. The 30-item validated Alzheimer disease knowledge scale (ADKS) tool was pilot-tested and used in this cross-sectional study. All pharmacists, from nine public hospitals and seven public health clinics in the State of Selangor, Malaysia, were invited to participate in this cross-sectional survey. The ADKS score was computed and compared across demographics characteristics. A total of 445 pharmacists responded to the survey. These pharmacists had a moderate overall score in ADKS; nevertheless, high scores were recorded in the domains of treatment management and care giving. No difference in AD knowledge was found among pharmacists worked in public hospitals and health clinics, except for the domain of care giving (p = 0.033). Ethnicity and age group were independent predictors of ADKS score in the current study. The pharmacists in the current study had moderate AD knowledge. On-going education and training programme on AD, in particular the domains other than treatment management and care giving, should be provided to the pharmacists to ensure delivery of quality care to AD patients.
Study site: Klinik Kesihatan, Hospitals, Selangor, Malaysia
K. galanga is an aromatic medicinal herb. It is locally to India and distributed in China, Myanmar, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand. K. galanga is a Traditional Chinese Herb Medicine (TCHM), which has been applied to treat cold, dry cough, toothaches, rheumatism, hypertension and so on. In addition, it has been used widely as spices since its highly aromas. The aim of this review is to compile and update the current progresses of ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of K. galanga. All the data on K. galanga were based on different classical literary works, multiple electronic databases including SciFinder, Web of Science, PubMed, etc. The results showed that ninety-seven compounds have been identified from rhizome of K. galanga, including terpenoids, phenolics, cyclic dipeptides, flavonoids, diarylheptanoids, fatty acids and esters. Modern pharmacology studies revealed that extracts or secondary metabolites of the herb possessed anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-tumorous, anti-bacterial, and anti-angiogenesis effects, which were closely related to its abundant ethnomedicinal uses. In conclusion, although previous research works have provided various information of K. galanga, more in-depth studies are still necessary to systemically evaluate phytochemistry, pharmacological activities, toxicity and quality control of this herb.
Ciprofloxacin, a second generation broad spectrum fluoroquinolone, is active against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Ciprofloxacin has a high oral bioavailability and a large volume of distribution. It is used for the treatment of a wide range of infections including urinary tract infections caused by susceptible bacteria. However, the availability and use of substandard and spurious quality of oral ciprofloxacin formulations in the developing countries has been thought to have contributed toward increased risk of treatment failure and bacterial resistance. Therefore, quality control and bioequivalence studies of the commercially available oral ciprofloxacin formulations should be monitored. Appropriate actions should be taken against offending manufacturers in order to prevent the sale of substandard and spurious quality of ciprofloxacin formulations.
Diabetic Nephropathy (DN) is the most common cause of End-stage renal disease (ESRD). Although various treatments and diagnosis applications are available, DN remains a clinical and economic burden. Recent findings showed that noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) play an important role in DN progression, potentially can be used as biomarkers and therapeutic targets. NcRNAs refers to the RNA species that do not encode for any protein, and the most known ncRNAs are the microRNAs (miRNAs), long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), and circular RNAs (circRNAs). Dysregulation of these ncRNAs was reported before in DN patients and animal models of DN. Importantly, there are some interactions between these ncRNAs to regulate the crucial steps in DN progression. Here, we aimed to discuss the reported ncRNAs in DN and their interactions with critical genes in DN progression. Elucidating these ncRNAs regulatory network will allow for a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms in DN and how they can act as new biomarkers for DN and also as the potential targets for treatment.
Aim: The present study aimed to investigate huperzine A as an anti-Alzheimer agent based on the principle that a single compound can regulate multiple proteins and associated pathways, using system biology tools. Methodology: The simplified molecular-input line-entry system of huperzine A was retrieved from the PubChem database, and its targets were predicted using SwissTargetPrediction. These targets were matched with the proteins deposited in DisGeNET for Alzheimer disease and enriched in STRING to identify the probably regulated pathways, cellular components, biological processes, and molecular function. Furthermore, huperzine A was docked against acetylcholinesterase using AutoDock Vina, and simulations were performed with the Gromacs package to take into account the dynamics of the system and its effect on the stability and function of the ligands. Results: A total of 100 targets were predicted to be targeted by huperzine A, of which 42 were regulated at a minimum probability of 0.05. Similarly, 101 Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathways were triggered, in which neuroactive ligand-receptor interactions scored the least false discovery rate. Also, huperzine A was predicted to modulate 54 cellular components, 120 molecular functions, and 873 biological processes. Furthermore, huperzine A possessed a binding affinity of -8.7 kcal/mol with AChE and interacted within the active site of AChE via H-bonds and hydrophobic interactions.
The decoction of the whole plant of Enhydra fluctuans is used ethno medicinally by various tribes for the treatment of kidney stones and urinary problems. However, no scientific studies were carried out to delineate its influence on urinary stone formation and crystallisation. Hence, the present study is proposed to investigate the effect of the aqueous extract of Enhydra fluctuans extract on in vitro crystallisation of calcium oxalate. The present study also evaluated. in silico studies of the metabolites with the target proteins present in the renal calcium oxalate stone matrix. The plant material was subjected to decoction to obtain an aqueous extract. The effect of the extract on calcium oxalate crystallization was evaluated by in vitro nucleation and aggregation assays. Further, the metabolites present in E. fluctuans were mined from the existing literature and their number was found to be 35. The selected 35 metabolites of E. fluctuans were subjected to molecular docking with the 5 proteins which are known to be responsible for calcium oxalate crystal growth. Results of in vitro studies indicated that the extract (50, 100, and 200 μg/mL) and standard drug cystone (1,000 μg/mL) exhibited an inhibitory role in the nucleation process where the percentage inhibitions were 52.69, 43.47, 21.98, and 31.67 μg/mL respectively. The results of molecular docking studies revealed that 2 out of 35 metabolites i.e. Baicalein-7-O-diglucoside and 4',5,6,7-Tetrahydroxy-8-methoxy isoflavone-7-O-beta-D- galactopyranosyl-(1→3)-O-beta-D-xylopyranosyl-(1→4)- O-alpha-L-rhamnopyranoside showed modulatory effects on the four renal stone matrix-associated protein (Human CTP: Phosphoethanolamine Cytidylyltransferase (Protein Data Bank ID: 3ELB), UDP glucose: glycoprotein glucosyltransferase 2 (Gene: UGGT2) (AlphaFold) and RIMS-binding protein 3A (Gene: RIMBP3) (AlphaFold), and Ras GTPase activating-like protein (PDB: 3FAY) based on their docking scores which indicates that they may inhibit the crystallization process. Findings from this study show that Enhydra fluctuans may be effective in the prevention of the crystallization of calcium oxalate. However, further, in vivo studies as well as molecular studies are needed to be conducted to confirm and strengthen its anti-urolithiatic activity and to elucidate the possible mechanism of action involved therein.