This study has applied the concept of the hybrid PAC-UF process in the treatment of the final effluent of the palm oil industry for reuse as feedwater for low-pressure boilers. In a bench-scale set-up, a low-cost empty fruit bunch-based powdered activated carbon (PAC) was employed for upstream adsorption of biotreated palm oil mill effluent (BPOME) with the process conditions: 60 g/L dose of PAC, 68 min of mixing time and 200 rpm of mixing speed, to reduce the feedwater strength, alleviate probable fouling of the membranes and thus improve the process flux (productivity). Three polyethersulfone ultrafiltration membranes of molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) of 1, 5 and 10 kDa were investigated in a cross-flow filtration mode, and under constant transmembrane pressures of 40, 80, and 120 kPa. The permeate qualities of the hybrid processes were evaluated, and it was found that the integrated process with the 1 kDa MWCO UF membrane yielded the best water quality that falls within the US EPA reuse standard for boiler-feed and cooling water. It was also observed that the permeate quality is fit for extended reuse as process water in the cement, petroleum and coal industries. In addition, the hybrid system's operation consumed 37.13 Wh m(-3) of energy at the highest applied pressure of 120 kPa, which is far lesser than the typical energy requirement range (0.8-1.0 kWh m(-3)) for such wastewater reclamation.
Presence of fat, oil, and grease (FOG) in wastewater is an ever-growing concern to municipalities and solid-waste facility operators. FOG enters the sewer system from restaurants, residences, and industrial food facilities. Its release into the sewer system results in a continuous build-up that causes eventual blockage of sewer pipes. Several researchers have investigated FOG deposition based on the local conditions of sewers and lifestyle. This paper attempts to review the physical and chemical characteristics of FOG, sources of FOG, and potential chemical and biological reactions of FOG. The effect of the aforementioned factors on the FOG-deposition mechanism is also discussed. Moreover, insight into the current control and treatment methods and potential reuse of FOG is highlighted. It is expected that this review would provide scientists and the concerned authorities a holistic view of the recent researches on FOG control, treatment, and reuse.