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Fulltext Cholera outbreak by Sea Gypsies in Sabah, Malaysia: A challenge in North Borneo

Jikal M, Riduan T, Aarifin R, Jeffree MS, Ahmed K

Int J Infect Dis, 2019 Jun;83:83-85.
PMID: 30986543 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2019.04.008

OBJECTIVES: In this study we investigated an outbreak of Vibrio cholera O1 Ogawa serotype, occurred during December 2014 in Kudat district, situated in Sabah state of the Malaysian part of Borneo.
METHODS: Active case detection and contact tracing were done at respective localities by house to house survey. Passive case detection was done among acute gastroenteritis patients attended at various health facilities. To determine the source, samples from food, water and environment were taken. A case control study was also done to determine the risk factors.
RESULTS: A total of 44 symptomatic and 34 asymptomatic cases from 19 localities were investigated. 39 cases were detected through passive case detection. Median age of cases was 23 years. All cases belonged to serogroup O1 and Ogawa serotype. The epidemiological investigation of time, place, and person identified that V. cholerae cross-transmission might have occurred in two fish markets and the fish-loading port. Circumstantial evidences indicated that cholera was possibly transmitted through contaminated sea foods.
CONCLUSIONS: We concluded that the life-style of Sea Gypsies is a challenge in cholera control; therefore vaccination might be an effective way to mitigate cholera in an outbreak prone area like Kudat.
Fulltext Neonatal melioidosis case reports-Lessons learned

Daim S, Barnad E, Johnny V, Suleiman M, Jikal M, Chua TH, et al.

Clin Case Rep, 2020 Jan;8(1):171-175.
PMID: 31998510 DOI: 10.1002/ccr3.2584

In endemic regions, include melioidosis in the routine differential diagnosis of neonates with respiratory distress, and consider early empirical ceftazidime treatment for neonates with worsening respiratory distress.
Fulltext Plasmodium knowlesi malaria in children

Barber BE, William T, Jikal M, Jilip J, Dhararaj P, Menon J, et al.

Emerg Infect Dis, 2011 May;17(5):814-20.
PMID: 21529389 DOI: 10.3201/eid1705.101489

Plasmodium knowlesi can cause severe malaria in adults; however, descriptions of clinical disease in children are lacking. We reviewed case records of children (age <15 years) with a malaria diagnosis at Kudat District Hospital, serving a largely deforested area of Sabah, Malaysia, during January-November 2009. Sixteen children with PCR-confirmed P. knowlesi monoinfection were compared with 14 children with P. falciparum monoinfection diagnosed by microscopy or PCR. Four children with knowlesi malaria had a hemoglobin level at admission of <10.0 g/dL (minimum lowest level 6.4 g/dL). Minimum level platelet counts were lower in knowlesi than in falciparum malaria (median 76,500/μL vs. 156,000/mL; p = 0.01). Most (81%) children with P. knowlesi malaria received chloroquine and primaquine; median parasite clearance time was 2 days (range 1-5 days). P. knowlesi is the most common cause of childhood malaria in Kudat. Although infection is generally uncomplicated, anemia is common and thrombocytopenia universal. Transmission dynamics in this region require additional investigation.
Fulltext A five-year retrospective study on the epidemiology of hand, foot and mouth disease in Sabah, Malaysia

Fong SY, Mori D, Rundi C, Yap JF, Jikal M, Latip ALLBA, et al.

Sci Rep, 2021 Sep 08;11(1):17814.
PMID: 34497287 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-96083-3

Hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) is endemic in Malaysia, with the number of cases increasing. Sabah has experienced several HFMD outbreaks, but information on the epidemiology and molecular characteristics of responsible viruses is scarce. In this study, data of 17,574 reports of HFMD cases in Sabah from 2015 to 2019 were extracted from a public health disease surveillance system and analyzed. Twenty-one swab samples from 13 children were collected from Beaufort, Sabah, during an outbreak in August 2018 for detection and serotyping of causative viruses by semi-nested reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (snRT-PCR) of the VP4-VP2 region and consensus degenerate hybrid oligonucleotide primer PCR of the VP1 region, respectively. Nucleotide sequencing and phylogenetic analysis were conducted by the neighbor-joining method. The average annual incidence of HFMD was 94.3 per 100,000 people, with the greatest yearly increase between 2017 and 2018. Swabs from six children were tested positive for enterovirus, of which five were positive for CVA16 and one for EV71. All CVA16 strains belonged to sub-genotype B1a, and the EV71 strain belonged to sub-genotype B5. Phylogenetic analyses indicate that enterovirus genotype shift might be responsible for the increasing trend of HFMD in Sabah, however, further study is needed.
Fulltext The incidence, and spatial trends of cholera in Sabah over 15 years: Repeated outbreaks in coastal areas

Maluda MCM, Johnson E, Robinson F, Jikal M, Fong SY, Saffree MJ, et al.

PLOS Glob Public Health, 2024;4(1):e0002861.
PMID: 38289918 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgph.0002861

Vibrio cholerae remains a notable public health challenge across Malaysia. Although the Malaysian state of Sabah is considered a cholera-affected area, gaps remain in understanding the epidemiological trends and spatial distribution of outbreaks. Therefore, to determine longitudinal and spatial trends in cholera cases data were obtained from the Sabah State Health Department for all notified cases of cholera between 2005-2020. A cholera outbreak is defined as one or more confirmed cases in a single locality with the evidence of local transmission. All records were geolocated to village level. Satellite-derived data and generalised linearized models were used to assess potential risk factors, including population density, elevation, and distance to the sea. Spatiotemporal clustering of reported cholera cases and zones of increased cholera risk were evaluated using the tau statistic (τ) at 550m, 5km and 10km distances. Over a 15-year period between 2005-2020, 2865 cholera cases were recorded in Sabah, with a mean incidence rate of 5.6 cases per 100,000 (95% CI: 3.4-7.9). From 2015-2020, 705 symptomatic cases and 727 asymptomatic cases were reported. Symptomatic cases primarily occurred in local Malaysian populations (62.6%, 441/705) and in children and adolescents under 15-years old (49.4%, 348/705). On average, cases were reported in areas with low population density (19.45 persons/km2), low elevations (19.45m) and near coastal areas. Spatiotemporal clustering of cholera cases was identified up to 3.5km, with increased village-level cholera risk within 500m and 5 days of initial case presentation to a health facility (Risk Ratio = 9.7, 95% CI: 7.5-12.4). Cholera incidence has high spatial and temporal heterogeneity within Sabah, with some districts experiencing repeated outbreaks. Cholera cases clustered across space and time, with village-level risk of cholera highest within 5 days and within close proximity to primary case villages, suggesting local transmission.
Probable Nipa Palm Wine-Associated Hepatitis A Outbreak after Attending a Funeral Ceremony in Sabah

Jikal M, Mori D, Yusoff AF, Rai SB, Mukhsam MH, Ali I, et al.

Am J Trop Med Hyg, 2021 07 12;105(3):777-782.
PMID: 34255740 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.21-0036

Foodborne outbreaks of hepatitis A virus (HAV) are most commonly associated with fresh and frozen produce and with various types of shellfish. Alcoholic beverage-borne outbreaks of hepatitis A are extremely rare. Here, we report an outbreak of hepatitis A associated with the consumption of a traditional wine at a funeral ceremony in the Sabah state of Malaysian Borneo. Confirmed cases were determined by serum anti-HAV immunoglobulin M and/or for fecal HAV by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The amplicons of RT-PCR were subjected to nucleotide sequencing followed by phylogenetic analysis. We conducted a 1:2 case-control study to identify the possible exposure that led to the outbreak. Sixteen patients met the case definition, they were 18 to 58 years old and 90% of them were males. The case-control study showed that the consumption of nipa palm wine during the ceremony was significantly associated (P = 0.0017) with hepatitis A infection (odds ratio, 5.44; 95% CI, 1.80-16.43). Untreated river water was used to dilute the traditional wine, which was assumed to be the source of the infection. Phylogenetically, these viruses belonged to genotype IA and formed an independent cluster with strains from Taiwan, Japan, and the Philippines. This strain might be an emerging HAV in Asian countries. Environmental assessments were performed and environmental samples were negative for HAV. The incidence of hepatitis A in Sabah was also determined and it was 0.795/100,000 population. Strict monitoring of traditional wine production should be implemented by the local authority to prevent future outbreaks.
Fulltext Genetic diversity of toxigenic Vibrio cholerae O1 from Sabah, Malaysia 2015

Zaw MT, Emran NA, Ibrahim MY, Suleiman M, Awang Mohd TA, Yusuff AS, et al.

J Microbiol Immunol Infect, 2019 Aug;52(4):563-570.
PMID: 29428381 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmii.2018.01.003

BACKGROUND: Cholera is an important health problem in Sabah, a Malaysian state in northern Borneo; however, Vibrio cholerae in Sabah have never been characterized. Since 2002, serogroup O1 strains having the traits of both classical and El Tor biotype, designated as atypical El Tor biotype, have been increasingly reported as the cause of cholera worldwide. These variants are believed to produce clinically more severe disease like classical strains.
PURPOSE: The purpose of this study is to investigate the genetic diversity of V.cholerae in Sabah and whether V.cholerae in Sabah belong to atypical El Tor biotype.
METHODS: ERIC-PCR, a DNA fingerprinting method for bacterial pathogens based on the enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus sequence, was used to study the genetic diversity of 65 clinical V.cholerae O1 isolates from 3 districts (Kudat, Beluran, Sandakan) in Sabah and one environmental isolate from coastal sea water in Kudat district. In addition, we studied the biotype-specific genetic traits in these isolates to establish their biotype.
RESULTS: Different fingerprint patterns were seen in isolates from these three districts but one of the patterns was seen in more than one district. Clinical isolates and environmental isolate have different patterns. In addition, Sabah isolates harbor genetic traits specific to both classical biotype (ctxB-1, rstRCla) and El Tor biotype (rstRET, rstC, tcpAET, rtxC, VC2346).
CONCLUSION: This study revealed that V.cholerae in Sabah were genetically diverse and were atypical El Tor strains. Fingerprint patterns of these isolates will be useful in tracing the origin of this pathogen in the future.