Messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines have emerged as a transformative platform in modern vaccinology. mRNA vaccine is a powerful alternative to traditional vaccines due to their high potency, safety, and efficacy, coupled with the ability for rapid clinical development, scalability and cost-effectiveness in manufacturing. Initially conceptualized in the 1970s, the first study about the effectiveness of a mRNA vaccine against influenza was conducted in 1993. Since then, the development of mRNA vaccines has rapidly gained significance, especially in combating the COVID-19 pandemic. Their unprecedented success during the COVID-19 pandemic, as demonstrated by the Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna vaccines, highlighted their transformative potential. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the mRNA vaccine technology, detailing the structure of the mRNA vaccine and its mechanism of action in inducing immunity. Advancements in nanotechnology, particularly lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) as delivery vehicles, have revolutionized the field. The manufacturing processes, including upstream production, downstream purification, and formulation are also reviewed. The clinical progress of mRNA vaccines targeting viruses causing infectious diseases is discussed, emphasizing their versatility and therapeutic potential. Despite their success, the mRNA vaccine platform faces several challenges, including improved stability to reduce dependence on cold chain logistics in transport, enhanced delivery mechanisms to target specific tissues or cells, and addressing the risk of rare adverse events. High costs associated with encapsulation in LNPs and the potential for unequal global access further complicate their widespread adoption. As the world continues to confront emerging viral threats, overcoming these challenges will be essential to fully harness the potential of mRNA vaccines. It is anticipated that mRNA vaccines will play a major role in defining and shaping the future of global health.
The effects of dry biomass density in cryogel beads, shaking speed and initial concentration ratio of phenol to 4-chlorophenol (4-CP) on the bioregeneration efficiencies of binary phenol and 4-CP-loaded granular activated carbon (GAC) for phenol and 4-CP, respectively, were investigated under the simultaneous adsorption and biodegradation approach. The results revealed higher bioregeneration efficiencies of binary-loaded GAC for phenol and 4-CP at higher dry biomass density but moderate shaking speed. The optimum dry biomass density in cryogel beads and shaking speed for use in bioregeneration were found to be 0.01 g/mL and 250 rpm, respectively. With respect to the initial phenol to 4-CP concentration ratio, the bioregeneration efficiencies were lower under increasing phenol and 4-CP initial concentrations, respectively, with the effect being more conspicuous under increasing 4-CP concentration. Higher bioregeneration efficiencies were achieved with the use of immobilized rather than suspended biomasses.
Given the significance of fostering sustainable climate conditions for long-term economic stability and financial resilience, this study probes the connection between climate-related policy ambiguity and its implications for currency valuation. In doing so, the current study investigates the interconnected effects of climate policy on economic policy uncertainty and geopolitical risk with the currency valuation in ASEAN countries. Employing wavelet coherence analysis and partial wavelet coherence analysis, the paper highlights the complex relationships among these factors and their implications for exchange rate fluctuations. Using data from 2000 to 2022, the findings reveal that climate policy uncertainty is an important driver of exchange rate movements, amplifying the impact of economic policy uncertainty and geopolitical risk. Furthermore, the study identifies a vicious cycle between climate policy uncertainty and exchange rates, potentially impacting the region's macroeconomic stability and long-term economic growth. The study presents several policy recommendations to address economic and climate policy uncertainties comprehensively based on the findings. These recommendations include establishing national frameworks for climate risk management, enhancing policy credibility and macroeconomic stability, and promoting regional integration to mitigate the influence of geopolitical risk on exchange rates.