Stingless bee-collected pollen (bee bread) is a mixture of bee pollen, bee salivary enzymes, and regurgitated honey, fermented by indigenous microbes during storage in the cerumen pot. Current literature data for bee bread is overshadowed by bee pollen, particularly of honeybee Apis. In regions such as South America, Australia, and Southeast Asia, information on stingless bee bee bread is mainly sought to promote the meliponiculture industry for socioeconomic development. This review aims to highlight the physicochemical properties and health benefits of bee bread from the stingless bee. In addition, it describes the current progress on identification of beneficial microbes associated with bee bread and its relation to the bee gut. This review provides the basis for promoting research on stingless bee bee bread, its nutrients, and microbes for application in the food and pharmaceutical industries.
Gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (GC-FID) has often been used to quantify fatty acids in fish. This study validated the common method for determining omega-3 fatty acids (DHA and EPA) in the raw and cooked warm-water fish, selayang, using GC-FID for subsequent evaluation on EPA and DHA retention using the Weibull model. The EPA and DHA were separated using a high-polarity capillary GC HP-88 column (60 m length, 0.25 mm ID, 0.2 μm DF) with a total run time of 45.87 min. The method was validated in linearity, precision, accuracy, specificity and sensitivity based on ICH requirements. In addition, it was found that the method had a high recovery rate (>95%) and good precision (RSD ≤ 2%) with overall RSDs ranging below 0.001% for both omega-3 PUFA. In conclusion, this method identified and quantified fatty acids and omega-3 accurately and precisely and can be used effectively for routine FAME analysis in fish samples.
Pennywort (Centella asiatica) is a herbaceous vegetable that is usually served in the form of fresh-cut vegetables and consumed raw. Fresh-cut vegetables are in high demand as they offer convenience, have fresh-like quality and are potentially great for therapeutic applications. However, it could be the cause of foodborne outbreaks. Pulsed light is known as a decontamination method for minimally processed products. The aim of this study was to determine the influence of pulsed light in combination with acidic electrolysed water on the sensory, morphological changes and bioactive components in the leaves of pennywort during storage. A combination of soaking with acidic electrolysed water (AEW) at pH 2.5 and pulsed light (PL) treatment (1.5 J/cm2) was tested on the leaves of pennywort. After treatment, these leaves were refrigerated (4 ± 1 °C) for two weeks and evaluated on the basis of sensory acceptance, the visual appearance of the epidermal cell and bioactive compounds. In terms of sensorial properties, samples treated with the combined treatment were preferred over untreated samples. The combination of AEW and PL 1.5 J/cm2 was the most preferred in terms of purchasing and consumption criteria. Observations of the epidermal cells illustrated that PL treatment kept the cell structure intact. The bioactive phytocompounds found in the leaves of pennywort are mainly from the triterpene glycosides (asiaticoside, madecassoside, asiatic acid and madecassic acid) and are efficiently preserved by the combined treatment applied. In conclusion, the combination of acidic electrolysed water and pulsed light treatment is beneficial in retaining the sensory quality and bioactive compounds in the leaves of Pennywort during storage at 4 ± 1 °C.
Natural clays have recently been proven to possess antibacterial properties. Effective natural antimicrobial agents are needed to combat bacterial contamination on food contact surfaces, which are increasingly more prevalent in the food chain. This study sought to determine the antibacterial activity of clays against the food-borne pathogens Salmonella typhimurium ATCC 14028 and Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 13565. Soils were processed to yield leachates and suspensions from untreated and treated clays. Soil particle size, pH, cation-exchange capacity, metal composition and mineralogy were characterized. Antibacterial screening was performed on six Malaysian soils via the disc diffusion method. In addition, a time-kill assay was conducted on selected antibacterial clays after 6 h of exposure. The screening revealed that Munchong and Carey clays significantly inhibit Salmonella typhimurium (11.00 ± 0.71 mm) and S. aureus (7.63 ± 0.48 mm), respectively. Treated Carey clay leachate and suspension completely kill Salmonella typhimurium, while S. aureus viability is reduced (2 to 3 log10). The untreated Carey and all Munchong clays proved ineffective as antibacterials. XRD analysis confirmed the presence of pyrite and magnetite. Treated Carey clays had a higher soluble metal content compared to Munchong; namely Al (92.63 ± 2.18 mg/L), Fe (65.69 ± 3.09 mg/L) and Mg (88.48 ± 2.29 mg/L). Our results suggest that metal ion toxicity is responsible for the antibacterial activity of these clays.
Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella Typhimurium have a propensity to develop biofilms on food contact surfaces, such as stainless-steel, that persist despite rigorous cleaning and sanitizing procedures. Since both bacterial species pose a significant public health risk within the food chain, improved anti-biofilm measures are needed. This study examined the potential of clays as antibacterial and anti-biofilm agents against these two pathogens on appropriate contact surfaces. Natural soil was processed to yield leachates and suspensions of both untreated and treated clays. Soil particle size, pH, cation-exchange capacity, and metal ions were characterized to assess their importance in bacterial killing. Initial antibacterial screening was performed on nine distinct types of natural Malaysian soil using a disk diffusion assay. Untreated leachate from Kuala Gula and Kuala Kangsar clays were found to inhibit S. aureus (7.75 ± 0.25 mm) and Salmonella Typhimurium (11.85 ± 1.63 mm), respectively. The treated Kuala Gula suspension (50.0 and 25.0 %) reduced S. aureus biofilms by 4.4 and 4.2 log at 24 and 6 h, respectively, while treated Kuala Kangsar suspension (12.5 %) by a 4.16 log reduction at 6 h. Although less effective, the treated Kuala Gula leachate (50.0 %) was effective in removing Salmonella Typhimurium biofilm with a decrease of >3 log in 24 h. In contrast to Kuala Kangsar clays, the treated Kuala Gula clays contained a much higher soluble metal content, especially Al (301.05 ± 0.45 ppm), Fe (691.83 ± 4.80 ppm) and Mg (88.44 ± 0.47 ppm). Elimination of S. aureus biofilms correlated with the presence of Fe, Cu, Pb, Ni, Mn and Zn irrespective of the pH of the leachate. Our findings demonstrate that a treated suspension is the most effective for eradication of S. aureus biofilms with a potential as a sanitizer-tolerant, natural antibacterial against biofilms for applications in the food industry.