Inhalation of particulate matter (PM), one of the many components of air pollution, is associated with the development and exacerbation of chronic respiratory diseases, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). COPD is one of the leading causes of global mortality and morbidity, with a paucity of therapeutic options and a significant contributor to global health expenditure. This review aims to provide a mechanistic understanding of the cellular and molecular pathways that lead to the development of COPD following chronic PM exposure. Our review describes how the inhalation of PM can lead to lung parenchymal destruction and cellular senescence due to chronic pulmonary inflammation and oxidative stress. Following inhalation of PM, significant increases in a range of pro-inflammatory cytokines, mediated by the nuclear factor kappa B pathway are reported. This review also highlights how the inhalation of PM can lead to deleterious chronic oxidative stress persisting in the lung post-exposure. Furthermore, our work summarises how PM inhalation can lead to airway remodelling, with increases in pro-fibrotic cytokines and collagen deposition, typical of COPD. This paper also accentuates the interconnection and possible synergism between the pathophysiological mechanisms leading to COPD. Our work emphasises the serious health consequences of PM exposure on respiratory health. Elucidation of the cellular and molecular mechanisms can provide insight into possible therapeutic options. Finally, this review should serve as a stark reminder of the need for genuine action on air pollution to decrease the associated health burden on our growing global population.
The escalating prevalence of lung diseases underscores the need for innovative therapies. Dysbiosis in human body microbiome has emerged as a significant factor in these diseases, indicating a potential role for synbiotics in restoring microbial equilibrium. However, effective delivery of synbiotics to the target site remains challenging. Here, we aim to explore suitable nanoparticles for encapsulating synbiotics tailored for applications in lung diseases. Nanoencapsulation has emerged as a prominent strategy to address the delivery challenges of synbiotics in this context. Through a comprehensive review, we assess the potential of nanoparticles in facilitating synbiotic delivery and their structural adaptability for this purpose. Our review reveals that nanoparticles such as nanocellulose, starch, and chitosan exhibit high potential for synbiotic encapsulation. These offer flexibility in structure design and synthesis, making them promising candidates for addressing delivery challenges in lung diseases. Furthermore, our analysis highlights that synbiotics, when compared to probiotics alone, demonstrate superior anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antibacterial and anticancer activities. This review underscores the promising role of nanoparticle-encapsulated synbiotics as a targeted and effective therapeutic approach for lung diseases, contributing valuable insights into the potential of nanomedicine in revolutionizing treatment strategies for respiratory conditions, ultimately paving the way for future advancements in this field.