MATERIALS AND METHODS: A critical review of preclinical and clinical studies was conducted to summarize the therapeutic interventions that target specific mutations in PDAC, components of the tumor microenvironment, and drug delivery systems, especially nanotechnology, to enhance targeting and efficacy.
RESULTS: Inhibitors and nanotechnology-based targeted therapies have reported promise in preclinical models: drug delivery is enhanced with the loss of PDAC resistance mechanisms. Formulations and combinations targeting KRAS as well as other pathways point toward improved drug delivery over 'orthodox' treatment approaches.
CONCLUSION: This review concludes that although improvement in therapies for PDAC has incrementally been proven in recent literature, however, more research is expected to enhance these approaches so that they can be applied appropriately at the clinical stage. In future studies, it is expected to optimize treatment combinations, address mechanisms of resistance, and improve the delivery of drugs.
METHODS: The methodology employed in this review involved a systematic search of peer-reviewed literature in databases such as PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, and Web of Science. The search strategy focused on identifying relevant articles using keywords and phrases such as "nanoparticle drug delivery systems," "antimicrobial resistance," "nanomedicine," "liposomes," "nanoemulsions," and "polymeric nanoparticles." The review included studies evaluating the mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance, the applications of NDDS, and their implications and advancements in combating AMR.
RESULTS: Nanoscale drug delivery vehicles and antibacterial nanoparticles have demonstrated significant potential as effective treatments for infections. Nanoparticles, with their small and controllable size, offer unique properties such as enhanced reactivity, a functionalizable structure, and a high surface area-to-volume ratio. NDDS, including liposomes, nanoemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, and metal nanoparticles, have gained attention due to their ability to enhance drug bioavailability and targeting effectiveness.
CONCLUSION: Nanoparticles present a promising strategy to combat AMR. Their capacity to bypass traditional resistance mechanisms and improve drug delivery underscores their potential in the development of effective antimicrobial therapies. Further research is essential to optimize nanoparticle formulations for clinical translation, ensuring their safety and efficacy in treating resistant bacterial infections. This review highlights the importance of integrating nanotechnology into antimicrobial strategies to address the growing challenge of AMR.
METHODS: Relevant literature was retrieved from PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar using the keywords rutin, preclinical studies, signaling pathways, and gene expression. Peer-reviewed articles published over the last two decades were critically examined for pharmacological, mechanistic, and translational insights.
RESULTS: Rutin has shown strong antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, cardioprotective, and antidiabetic activities across multiple preclinical models. These effects are mediated by modulation of signaling pathways including PI3K/Akt/mTOR, MAPK, STAT3, β-catenin, and EGFR. Such interactions regulate downstream gene expression and cellular response, highlighting rutin's role as a multi-pathway modulator with a role in future gene-based medicine.
DISCUSSION: Due to a lack of clinical trials, poor solubility, and insufficient bioavailability, rutin exhibits significant preclinical potential but is still understudied. Strong in vivo research and clinical trials are desperately needed, but new multi-omics techniques are enhancing its delivery and mechanistic understanding. To turn rutin into useful treatments, future studies should concentrate on optimal formulations, gene-therapy-related uses, and safety/interaction profiling.
CONCLUSION: Rutin demonstrates significant therapeutic promise by acting as a network modulator that influences multiple interconnected signaling pathways. Future work must prioritize advanced formulations and rigorous clinical studies to validate its potential role as a valuable adjuvant in the fields of precision medicine and gene-based therapies.