Displaying publications 41 - 60 of 143 in total

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  1. Activation of Nrf2 signaling by sitagliptin and quercetin combination against β-amyloid induced Alzheimer's disease in rats
    Li Y, Tian Q, Li Z, Dang M, Lin Y, Hou X
    Drug Dev Res, 2019 09;80(6):837-845.
    PMID: 31301179 DOI: 10.1002/ddr.21567
    The objective of this study was to evaluate the neuroprotective effect of sitagliptin (Sita), quercetin (QCR) and its combination in β-amyloid (Aβ) induced Alzheimer's disease (AD). Male Sprague-Dawley rats, weighing between 220 and 280 g were used for experiment. Rats were divided into 5 groups (n = 10) and the groups were as follows: (a) Sham control; (b) Aβ injected; (c) Aβ injected + Sita 100; (d) Aβ injected + QCR 100; and (e) Aβ injected + Sita 100 + QCR 100. Cognitive performance was observed by the Morris water maze (MWM), biochemical markers, for example, MDA, SOD, CAT, GSH, Aβ1-42 level, Nrf2/HO-1 expression and histopathological study of rat brain were estimated. Pretreatment with Sita, QCR and their combination showed a significant increase in escape latency in particular MWM cognitive model. Further co-administration of sita and QCR significantly reduced Aβ1-42 level when compared with individual treatment. Biochemical markers, for example, increased SOD, CAT and GSH, decreased MDA were seen, and histopathological studies revealed the reversal of neuronal damage in the treatment group. Additionally, Nrf2/HO-1 pathway in rat's brain was significantly increased by Sita, QCR and their combination. Pretreatment with QCR potentiates the action of Sita in Aβ induced AD in rats. The improved cognitive memory could be because of the synergistic effect of the drugs by decreasing Aβ1-42 level, antioxidant activity and increased expression of Nrf2/HO-1 in rat brain.
    Matched MeSH terms: Brain/pathology
  2. Jeavons syndrome in China
    Wang XL, Bao JX, Liang-Shi, Tie-Ma, Deng YC, Zhao G, et al.
    Epilepsy Behav, 2014 Mar;32:64-71.
    PMID: 24495864 DOI: 10.1016/j.yebeh.2013.12.016
    Jeavons syndrome (JS) is one of the underreported epileptic syndromes and is characterized by eyelid myoclonia (EM), eye closure-induced seizures or electroencephalography (EEG) paroxysms, and photosensitivity. In the Western populations, it has been reported to be characterized by focal posterior, occipital predominant epileptiform discharges (OPEDs) or frontal predominant epileptiform discharges (FPEDs) followed by generalized EDs in both interictal and ictal EEG recordings. However, it is not clear if there are different clinical manifestations between OPEDs and FPEDs. The clinical and electrographic presentations in the Chinese population are largely unknown. Here, we report the clinical and electroencephalographic features of 50 Chinese patients with JS and evaluate for the presence of different clinical features between patients with OPEDs and patients with FPEDs.
    Matched MeSH terms: Brain/pathology
  3. Focal epilepsy recruiting a generalised network of juvenile myoclonic epilepsy: a case report
    Khaing M, Lim KS, Tan CT
    Epileptic Disord, 2014 Sep;16(3):370-4.
    PMID: 25166001 DOI: 10.1684/epd.2014.0672
    We report a patient with juvenile myoclonic epilepsy who subsequently developed temporal lobe epilepsy, which gradually became clinically dominant. Video telemetry revealed both myoclonic seizures and temporal lobe seizures. The temporal lobe seizures were accompanied by a focal recruiting rhythm with rapid generalisation on EEG, in which the ictal EEG pattern during the secondary generalised phase was morphologically similar to the ictal pattern during myoclonic seizures. The secondary generalised seizures of the focal epilepsy responded to sodium valproate, similar to the myoclonic epilepsy. In this rare case of coexistent Juvenile Myoclonic Epilepsy and Temporal lobe epilepsy, the possibility of focal epilepsy recruiting a generalised epileptic network was proposed and discussed.
    Matched MeSH terms: Brain/pathology
  4. Video-EEG telemetry: apparent manifestation of both epileptic and non-epileptic attacks causing potential diagnostic pitfalls
    Raymond AA, Gilmore WV, Scott CA, Fish DR, Smith SJ
    Epileptic Disord, 1999 Jun;1(2):101-6.
    PMID: 10937139
    Video-EEG telemetry is often used to support the diagnosis of non-epileptic seizures (NES). Although rare, some patients may have both epileptic seizures (ES) and NES. It is crucially important to identify such patients to avoid the hazards of inappropriate anticonvulsant withdrawal. To delineate the electroclinical characteristics and diagnostic problems in this group of patients, we studied the clinical, EEG and MRI features of 14 consecutive patients in whom separate attacks, considered to be both NES and ES were recorded using video-EEG telemetry. Only two patients were drug-reduced during the telemetry. Most patients had their first seizure (ES or NES) in childhood (median age 7 years; range: 6 months-24 years); 8/14 patients were female. Brain MRI was abnormal in 10/14 patients. Interictal EEG abnormalities were present in all patients; 13/14 had epileptiform and 1/14 only background abnormalities. Over 70 seizures were recorded in these 14 patients: in 12/14 patients, the first recorded seizure was a NES (p < 0.001), and 7 of these patients had at least one more NES before an ES was recorded. Only 3/14 patients had more than 5 NES before an ES was recorded. Recording a small number of apparently NES in an individual by no means precludes the possibility of additional epilepsy. Particular care should be taken, and multiple (> 5) seizure recording may be advisable, in patients with a young age of seizure onset, interictal EEG abnormalities, or a clear, potential aetiology for epilepsy.
    Matched MeSH terms: Brain/pathology
  5. Neuroimaging in refractory epilepsy. Current practice and evolving trends
    Ramli N, Rahmat K, Lim KS, Tan CT
    Eur J Radiol, 2015 Sep;84(9):1791-800.
    PMID: 26187861 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejrad.2015.03.024
    Identification of the epileptogenic zone is of paramount importance in refractory epilepsy as the success of surgical treatment depends on complete resection of the epileptogenic zone. Imaging plays an important role in the locating and defining anatomic epileptogenic abnormalities in patients with medically refractory epilepsy. The aim of this article is to present an overview of the current MRI sequences used in epilepsy imaging with special emphasis of lesion seen in our practices. Optimisation of epilepsy imaging protocols are addressed and current trends in functional MRI sequences including MR spectroscopy, diffusion tensor imaging and fusion MR with PET and SPECT are discussed.
    Matched MeSH terms: Brain/pathology*
  6. Fingolimod affects gene expression profile associated with LPS-induced memory impairment
    Omidbakhsh R, Rajabli B, Nasoohi S, Khallaghi B, Mohamed Z, Naidu M, et al.
    Exp Brain Res, 2014 Nov;232(11):3687-96.
    PMID: 25098558 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-014-4052-4
    Lipopolysaccharide is an endotoxin to induce sickness behavior in several animal models to explore the link between immune activation and cognition. Neuroinflammation playing a pivotal role in disease progress is evidently influenced by sphingosine-1-phosphate. As one of the sphingosine analogs in clinical use for multiple sclerosis, fingolimod (FTY720) was shown to substantially affect gene expression profile in the context of AD in our previous experiments. The present study was designed to evaluate the drug efficacy in the context of the mere inflammatory context leading to memory impairment. FTY720 was repeatedly administered for a few days before or after intracerebral lipopolysaccharide (LPS) injection in rats. Animal's brains were then assigned to histological as well as multiplex mRNA assay following memory performance test. Both FTY720 pre-treatment and post-treatment were similarly capable of ameliorating LPS-induced memory impairment as assessed by passive avoidance test. Such amending effects may be partly accountable by the concomitant alterations in transcriptional levels of mitogen-activated protein kinases as well as inflammatory genes determined by QuantiGene Plex analysis. These findings confirming FTY720 application benefits suggest its efficacy may not differ significantly while considered either as a preventive or as a therapeutic approach against neuroinflammation.
    Matched MeSH terms: Brain/pathology
  7. Fulltext The craniotomy box: an innovative method of containing hazardous aerosols generated during skull saw use in autopsy on a COVID-19 body
    Hasmi AH, Khoo LS, Koo ZP, Suriani MUA, Hamdan AN, Yaro SWM, et al.
    Forensic Sci Med Pathol, 2020 09;16(3):477-480.
    PMID: 32500339 DOI: 10.1007/s12024-020-00270-z
    During a disease pandemic, there is still a requirement to perform postmortem examinations within the context of legal considerations. The management of the dead from COVID-19 should not impede the medicolegal investigation of the death where required by the authorities and legislation but additional health and safety precautions should be adopted for the necessary postmortem procedures. The authors have therefore used the craniotomy box in an innovative way to enable a safe alternative for skull and brain removal procedures on suspected or confirmed COVID-19 bodies. The craniotomy box technique was tested on a confirmed COVID-19 positive body where a full postmortem examination was performed by a team of highly trained personnel in a negative pressure Biosafety Level 3 (BSL-3) autopsy suite in the National Institute of Forensic Medicine (IPFN) Malaysia. This craniotomy box is a custom-made transparent plastic box with five walls but without a floor. Two circular holes were made in one wall for the placement of arms in order to perform the skull opening procedure. A swab to detect the presence of the SARS-CoV-2 virus was taken from the interior surface of the craniotomy box after the procedure. The result from the test using real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR) proved that an additional barrier provided respiratory protection by containing the aerosols generated from the skull opening procedure. This innovation ensures procedures performed inside this craniotomy box are safe for postmortem personnel performing high risk autopsies during pandemics.
    Matched MeSH terms: Brain/pathology
  8. Zinc: indications in brain disorders
    Prakash A, Bharti K, Majeed AB
    Fundam Clin Pharmacol, 2015 Apr;29(2):131-49.
    PMID: 25659970 DOI: 10.1111/fcp.12110
    Zinc is the authoritative metal which is present in our body, and reactive zinc metal is crucial for neuronal signaling and is largely distributed within presynaptic vesicles. Zinc also plays an important role in synaptic function. At cellular level, zinc is a modulator of synaptic activity and neuronal plasticity in both development and adulthood. Different importers and transporters are involved in zinc homeostasis. ZnT-3 is a main transporter involved in zinc homeostasis in the brain. It has been found that alterations in brain zinc status have been implicated in a wide range of neurological disorders including impaired brain development and many neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, and mood disorders including depression, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and prion disease. Furthermore, zinc has also been implicated in neuronal damage associated with traumatic brain injury, stroke, and seizure. Understanding the mechanisms that control brain zinc homeostasis is thus critical to the development of preventive and treatment strategies for these and other neurological disorders.
    Matched MeSH terms: Brain/pathology
  9. Henipavirus encephalitis
    Abdullah S, Tan CT
    Handb Clin Neurol, 2014;123:663-70.
    PMID: 25015510 DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-444-53488-0.00032-8
    Matched MeSH terms: Brain/pathology
  10. Establishment of rat brain endothelial cells susceptible to rat cytomegalovirus ALL-03 infection
    Camalxaman SN, Zeenathul NA, Quah YW, Loh HS, Zuridah H, Hani H, et al.
    In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim, 2013 Mar;49(3):238-44.
    PMID: 23435855 DOI: 10.1007/s11626-012-9553-5
    Endothelial cells have been implicated as key cells in promoting the pathogenesis and spread of cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection. This study describes the isolation and culture of rat brain endothelial cells (RBEC) and further evaluates the infectious potential of a Malaysian rat CMV (RCMV ALL-03) in these cultured cells. Brain tissues were mechanically fragmented, exposed to enzymatic digestion, purified by gradient density centrifugation, and cultured in vitro. Morphological characteristics and expression of von Willebrand factor (factor VIII-related antigen) verified the cells were of endothelial origin. RBEC were found to be permissive to the virus by cytopathic effects with detectable plaques formed within 7 d of infection. This was confirmed by electron microscopy examination which proved the existence of the viral particles in the infected cells. The susceptibility of the virus to these target cells under the experimental conditions described in this report provides a platform for developing a cell-culture-based experimental model for studies of RCMV pathogenesis and allows stimulation of further studies on host cell responses imposed by congenital viral infections.
    Matched MeSH terms: Brain/pathology
  11. Multimodal 3-D reconstruction of human anatomical structures using SurLens Visualization System
    Adeshina AM, Hashim R, Khalid NE, Abidin SZ
    Interdiscip Sci, 2013 Mar;5(1):23-36.
    PMID: 23605637 DOI: 10.1007/s12539-013-0155-z
    In the medical diagnosis and treatment planning, radiologists and surgeons rely heavily on the slices produced by medical imaging devices. Unfortunately, these image scanners could only present the 3-D human anatomical structure in 2-D. Traditionally, this requires medical professional concerned to study and analyze the 2-D images based on their expert experience. This is tedious, time consuming and prone to error; expecially when certain features are occluding the desired region of interest. Reconstruction procedures was earlier proposed to handle such situation. However, 3-D reconstruction system requires high performance computation and longer processing time. Integrating efficient reconstruction system into clinical procedures involves high resulting cost. Previously, brain's blood vessels reconstruction with MRA was achieved using SurLens Visualization System. However, adapting such system to other image modalities, applicable to the entire human anatomical structures, would be a meaningful contribution towards achieving a resourceful system for medical diagnosis and disease therapy. This paper attempts to adapt SurLens to possible visualisation of abnormalities in human anatomical structures using CT and MR images. The study was evaluated with brain MR images from the department of Surgery, University of North Carolina, United States and CT abdominal pelvic, from the Swedish National Infrastructure for Computing. The MR images contain around 109 datasets each of T1-FLASH, T2-Weighted, DTI and T1-MPRAGE. Significantly, visualization of human anatomical structure was achieved without prior segmentation. SurLens was adapted to visualize and display abnormalities, such as an indication of walderstrom's macroglobulinemia, stroke and penetrating brain injury in the human brain using Magentic Resonance (MR) images. Moreover, possible abnormalities in abdominal pelvic was also visualized using Computed Tomography (CT) slices. The study shows SurLens' functionality as a 3-D Multimodal Visualization System.
    Matched MeSH terms: Brain/pathology*
  12. Locating abnormalities in brain blood vessels using parallel computing architecture
    Adeshina AM, Hashim R, Khalid NE, Abidin SZ
    Interdiscip Sci, 2012 Sep;4(3):161-72.
    PMID: 23292689 DOI: 10.1007/s12539-012-0132-y
    CT and MRI scans are widely used in medical diagnosis procedures, but they only produce 2-D images. However, the human anatomical structure, the abnormalities, tumors, tissues and organs are in 3-D. 2-D images from these devices are difficult to interpret because they only show cross-sectional views of the human structure. Consequently, such circumstances require doctors to use their expert experiences in the interpretation of the possible location, size or shape of the abnormalities, even for large datasets of enormous amount of slices. Previously, the concept of reconstructing 2-D images to 3-D was introduced. However, such reconstruction model requires high performance computation, may either be time-consuming or costly. Furthermore, detecting the internal features of human anatomical structure, such as the imaging of the blood vessels, is still an open topic in the computer-aided diagnosis of disorders and pathologies. This paper proposes a volume visualization framework using Compute Unified Device Architecture (CUDA), augmenting the widely proven ray casting technique in terms of superior qualities of images but with slow speed. Considering the rapid development of technology in the medical community, our framework is implemented on Microsoft.NET environment for easy interoperability with other emerging revolutionary tools. The framework was evaluated with brain datasets from the department of Surgery, University of North Carolina, United States, containing around 109 MRA datasets. Uniquely, at a reasonably cheaper cost, our framework achieves immediate reconstruction and obvious mappings of the internal features of human brain, reliable enough for instantaneous locations of possible blockages in the brain blood vessels.
    Matched MeSH terms: Brain/pathology*
  13. The study of the function of AQP4 in cerebral ischaemia-reperfusion injury using poroelastic theory
    Mokhtarudin MJ, Payne SJ
    Int J Numer Method Biomed Eng, 2017 01;33(1).
    PMID: 26991256 DOI: 10.1002/cnm.2784
    Brain oedema is thought to form and to clear through the use of water-protein channels, aquaporin-4 (AQP4), which are found in the astrocyte endfeet. The model developed here is used to study the function of AQP4 in the formation and elimination of oedema fluid in ischaemia-reperfusion injury. The cerebral space is assumed to be made of four fluid compartments: astrocyte, neuron, ECS and blood microvessels, and a solid matrix for the tissue, and this is modelled using multiple-network poroelastic theory. AQP4 allows the movement of water between astrocyte and the ECS and the microvessels. It is found that the presence of AQP4 may help in reducing vasogenic oedema shown by a decrease in brain tissue extracellular pressure. However, the astrocyte pressure will increase to compensate for this decrease, which may lead to cytotoxic oedema. In addition, the swelling will also depend on the ionic concentrations in the astrocyte and extracellular space, which may change after ischaemic stroke. Understanding the role of AQP4 in oedema may thus help the development of a treatment plan in reducing brain swelling after ischaemia-reperfusion.
    Matched MeSH terms: Brain/pathology
  14. Fulltext Macrodactyly and poliosis in tuberous sclerosis complex
    Sasongko TH, Ismail NF, Nik Mohd Ariff NA, Zabidi-Hussin ZA
    Jpn J Clin Oncol, 2014 Nov;44(11):1130.
    PMID: 25320338 DOI: 10.1093/jjco/hyu157
    Matched MeSH terms: Brain/pathology*
  15. MRI Markers of Mixed Pathology and Cognitive Impairment in Multiethnic Asians
    Tan CH, Hilal S, Xu X, Vrooman H, Cheng CY, Wong TY, et al.
    J Alzheimers Dis, 2020;73(4):1501-1509.
    PMID: 31958085 DOI: 10.3233/JAD-190866
    There is a need to elucidate the combined influence of neurodegeneration and cerebrovascular disease (CeVD) on cognitive impairment, especially in diverse populations. Here, we evaluated 840 multiethnic individuals (mean age = 70.18) across the disease spectrum from the Epidemiology of Dementia in Singapore study. First, we determined whether a validated quantitative MRI score of mixed pathology is associated with clinical diagnosis and whether the score differed between ethnicities (Chinese, Malays, and Indians). We then evaluated whether the score was associated with multidomain cognitive impairment and if additional measures of CeVD were further associated with cognitive impairment. We found that lower quantitative MRI scores were associated with severity of clinical diagnosis and Chinese individuals had the highest quantitative MRI scores, followed by Indians and Malays. Lower quantitative MRI scores were also associated with lower performance in attention, language, visuoconstruction, visuomotor, visual, and verbal memory domains. Lastly, the presence of intracranial stenosis and cortical cerebral microinfarcts, but not cerebral microbleeds, were associated with memory performance beyond quantitative MRI scores. Taken together, our results demonstrate the utility of using multiple MRI markers of neurodegeneration and CeVD for identifying multiethnic Asians with the greatest cognitive impairment due to mixed pathology.
    Matched MeSH terms: Brain/pathology
  16. Fulltext Neuroinflammation: A Common Pathway in Alzheimer's Disease and Epilepsy
    Liew Y, Retinasamy T, Arulsamy A, Ali I, Jones NC, O'Brien TJ, et al.
    J Alzheimers Dis, 2023;94(s1):S253-S265.
    PMID: 37092226 DOI: 10.3233/JAD-230059
    BACKGROUND: Neuroinflammation is an innate immunological response of the central nervous system that may be induced by a brain insult and chronic neurodegenerative conditions. Recent research has shown that neuroinflammation may contribute to the initiation of Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis and associated epileptogenesis.

    OBJECTIVE: This systematic review aimed to investigate the available literature on the shared molecular mechanisms of neuroinflammation in AD and epilepsy.

    METHODS: The search included in this systematic review was obtained from 5 established databases. A total of 2,760 articles were screened according to inclusion criteria. Articles related to the modulation of the inflammatory biomarkers commonly associated with the progression of AD and epilepsy in all populations were included in this review.

    RESULTS: Only 7 articles met these criteria and were chosen for further analysis. Selected studies include both in vitro and in vivo research conducted on rodents. Several neuroinflammatory biomarkers were reported to be involved in the cross-talk between AD and epilepsy.

    CONCLUSION: Neuroinflammation was directly associated with the advancement of AD and epilepsy in populations compared to those with either AD or epilepsy. However, more studies focusing on common inflammatory biomarkers are required to develop standardized monitoring guidelines to prevent the manifestation of epilepsy and delay the progression of AD in patients.

    Matched MeSH terms: Brain/pathology
  17. New isatin derivative inhibits neurodegeneration by restoring insulin signaling in brain
    Aftab MF, Afridi SK, Mughal UR, Karim A, Haleem DJ, Kabir N, et al.
    J. Chem. Neuroanat., 2017 04;81:1-9.
    PMID: 28093241 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchemneu.2017.01.001
    Diabetes is associated with neurodegeneration. Glycation ensues in diabetes and glycated proteins cause insulin resistance in brain resulting in amyloid plaques and NFTs. Also glycation enhances gliosis by promoting neuroinflammation. Currently there is no therapy available to target neurodegenration in brain therefore, development of new therapy that offers neuroprotection is critical. The objective of this study was to evaluate mechanistic effect of isatin derivative URM-II-81, an anti-glycation agent for improvement of insulin action in brain and inhibition of neurodegenration. Methylglyoxal induced stress was inhibited by treatment with URM-II-81. Also, Ser473 and Ser9 phosphorylation of Akt and GSK-3β respectively were restored by URM-II-81. Effect of URM-II-81 on axonal integrity was studied by differentiating Neuro2A using retinoic acid. URM-II-81 restored axonal length in MGO treated cells. Its effects were also studied in high fat and low dose streptozotocin induced diabetic mice where it reduced RBG levels and inhibited glycative stress by reducing HbA1c. URM-II-81 treatment also showed inhibition of gliosis in hippocampus. Histological analysis showed reduced NFTs in CA3 hippocampal region and restoration of insulin signaling in hippocampii of diabetic mice. Our findings suggest that URM-II-81 can be developed as a new therapeutic agent for treatment of neurodegenration.
    Matched MeSH terms: Brain/pathology
  18. Transient parkinsonism following mycoplasma pneumoniae infection with normal brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
    Tay CG, Fong CY, Ong LC
    J Child Neurol, 2014 Dec;29(12):NP193-5.
    PMID: 24309239 DOI: 10.1177/0883073813510741
    Parkinsonism caused by infection is uncommon in children. We report 2 previously healthy children with acute self-limiting parkinsonism following Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection, with normal brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Our case report expands the phenotype of parkinsonism associated with M. pneumoniae infection. We recommend that children with acute parkinsonism preceded by a period of febrile illness, even with a normal brain MRI, should be investigated for M. pneumoniae infection.
    Matched MeSH terms: Brain/pathology
  19. Succinic Semialdehyde Dehydrogenase Deficiency in a Chinese Boy: A Novel ALDH5A1 Mutation With Severe Phenotype
    Tay CG, Ariffin H, Yap S, Rahmat K, Sthaneshwar P, Ong LC
    J Child Neurol, 2015 Jun;30(7):927-31.
    PMID: 25122112 DOI: 10.1177/0883073814540523
    Succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase deficiency is a rare autosomal recessive disorder affecting catabolism of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), with a wide range of clinical phenotype. We report a Malaysian Chinese boy with a severe early onset phenotype due to a previously unreported mutation. Urine organic acid chromatogram revealed elevated 4-hydroxybutyric acid. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain demonstrated cerebral atrophy with atypical putaminal involvement. Molecular genetic analysis showed a novel homozygous 3-bp deletion at the ALDH5A1 gene c.1501_1503del (p.Glu501del). Both parents were confirmed to be heterozygotes for the p.Glu501del mutation. The clinical course was complicated by the development of subdural hemorrhage probably as a result of rocking the child to sleep for erratic sleep-wake cycles. This case illustrates the need to recognize that trivial or unintentional shaking of such children, especially in the presence of cerebral atrophy, can lead to subdural hemorrhage.
    Matched MeSH terms: Brain/pathology
  20. Fulltext Brain-Eating Amoebae: Predilection Sites in the Brain and Disease Outcome
    Ong TYY, Khan NA, Siddiqui R
    J Clin Microbiol, 2017 07;55(7):1989-1997.
    PMID: 28404683 DOI: 10.1128/JCM.02300-16
    Acanthamoeba spp. and Balamuthia mandrillaris are causative agents of granulomatous amoebic encephalitis (GAE), while Naegleria fowleri causes primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). PAM is an acute infection that lasts a few days, while GAE is a chronic to subacute infection that can last up to several months. Here, we present a literature review of 86 case reports from 1968 to 2016, in order to explore the affinity of these amoebae for particular sites of the brain, diagnostic modalities, treatment options, and disease outcomes in a comparative manner.
    Matched MeSH terms: Brain/pathology*
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