Most of the existing studies on stochastic convergence of emission have not adequately considered smooth structural changes. The primary purpose of this paper is to examine the validity of stochastic convergence at different income levels by recently proposed Fourier-based wavelet augmented Dickey-Fuller test with smooth shifts. Empirical results can be summed up as follows: (i) carbon emission per capita follows the stationarity process in 35 high-income countries, while carbon emission per capita follows the stationarity process in 27 upper-middle-income countries; (ii) besides, carbon emission per capita follows stationarity process in 30 lower-middle-income countries, while carbon emission per capita follows stationarity process in 13 low-income countries; (iii) in light of these findings, it can be said that stochastic convergence among different income groups is valid. The implications of the empirical findings for environmental planning and management are discussed in the body of the paper.
This paper aims to examine convergence of income inequality in 21 OECD countries using several empirical techniques. In particular, we have used a new panel stationarity test, which allows for structural changes and cross-sectional dependence to examine the stochastic convergence of income inequality. We also employed a time series approach, residual augmented least squares-Lagrange multiplier unit root test. The empirical results show evidence for absolute, conditional, and sigma convergence. The conditional convergence test results suggest that countries are converging, but conditional on the two structural factors-economic and population growth. The stochastic convergence test results indicate the existence of convergence at the country-specific level. The results further confirm the existence of convergent clubs among OECD countries.
Despite being directly related to anthropogenic consumption and production, researchers have paid less attention to understanding the dynamics of non-methane volatile organic compounds. The primary objective of this research is to investigate the persistence of potential shocks to non-methane volatile organic compounds in 20 developed from 1820 to 2019 performing traditional unit root approaches and a newly developed Fourier quantile unit root test. Great portion of the empirical results obtained by traditional unit root tests reveal that the sectoral non-methane volatile organic compounds follow a non-stationary process, while the Fourier quantile unit root test indicate quite different results. The Fourier quantile test shows that non-methane volatile organic compounds are stationary in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Germany, France and Austria. In the other 15 countries, government interventions to reduce non-methane volatile organic compounds can have lasting effects and success. The inferences and policy outcomes of the empirical results are discussed in the main body of the paper.