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Contagious ecthyma: how serious is the disease worldwide?

Lawan Z, Bala JA, Bukar AM, Balakrishnan KN, Mangga HK, Abdullah FFJ, et al.

Anim Health Res Rev, 2021 06;22(1):40-55.
PMID: 34016216 DOI: 10.1017/S1466252320000018

Contagious ecthyma (CE) is an infectious disease of small ruminants caused by a parapoxvirus of family Poxviridae subfamily Chordopoxvirinae. The disease is obviously distinguished by an establishment of scabby lesions and ulcerative formation on less hairy areas including muzzle, ears, nostril, and sometimes on genitalia. The disease is endemic in sheep and goats. The virus is transmissible to other ruminants and is a public health concern in humans. Although the disease is known as self-limiting, it may cause a significant economic threat and financial losses due to lower productivity in livestock production. Information with regard to the risk of the disease and epidemiology in most parts of the world is underreported. This paper aims to provide relevant information about the epidemiology of CE in selected regions of Europe, South America, North America, Asia, Africa, and Australia. An in-depth comprehension of virus infection, diagnoses, and management of the disease will enable farmers, researchers, veterinarians, abattoir workers, health personnel, and border controllers to improve their measures, skills, and effectiveness toward disease prevention and control, toward reducing unnecessary economic loss among farmers. A herd health program for significant improvement in management and productivity of livestock demands a well planned extension program that ought to encourage farmers to equip themselves with adequate skills for animal healthcare.

Matched MeSH terms: Ecthyma, Contagious*
Severe complications induced by experimental bacterial superinfection of orf lesions

Zamri-Saad M, Roshidah I, al-Ajeeli KS, Ismail MS, Kamarzaman A

Trop Anim Health Prod, 1993 May;25(2):85-8.
PMID: 8236484

Twelve goats about 3 months of age were divided into 4 equal groups. Goats in Groups 1 and 2 were infected with orf virus followed by Corynebacterium pyogenes infection of Groups 1 and 3, 3 days after the first appearance of orf lesions. Goats in Group 4 were uninfected controls. Complicated orf lesions which consisted of wet suppurative scabs around the entire lips were observed in goats in Group 1. The lesions persisted for 24 days but were most severe from days 8 to 13. Goats in Group 2 developed lesions typical of orf virus infection that lasted 10 days, while goats in Group 3 developed small nodules of about 1 cm diameter, 48 hours following the introduction of C. pyogenes, which persisted for only 6 days. No lesion was observed in goats in Group 4. Two goats in Group 1 with complicated orf died after 16 and 22 days respectively.

Matched MeSH terms: Ecthyma, Contagious/microbiology*; Ecthyma, Contagious/pathology
A severe outbreak of orf involving the buccal cavity of goats

Zamri-Saad M, al-Ajeeli KS, Ibrahim AL

Trop Anim Health Prod, 1992 Aug;24(3):177-8.
PMID: 1304665
Matched MeSH terms: Ecthyma, Contagious/mortality; Ecthyma, Contagious/epidemiology*
Experimental cross-infection of sheep and goats with different isolates of contagious ecthyma virus

Zamri-Saad M, Roshidah I, al-Ajeeli K

Aust. Vet. J., 1994 Jul;71(7):218-20.
PMID: 7945102
Matched MeSH terms: Ecthyma, Contagious/immunology; Ecthyma, Contagious/pathology*; Ecthyma, Contagious/virology
Fulltext An association of Orf virus infection among sheep and goats with herd health programme in Terengganu state, eastern region of the peninsular Malaysia

Bala JA, Balakrishnan KN, Abdullah AA, Adamu L, Noorzahari MSB, May LK, et al.

BMC Vet Res, 2019 Jul 18;15(1):250.
PMID: 31319873 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-019-1999-1

BACKGROUND: Orf virus causes a scabby skin lesions which decreases productivity in small ruminants. The unknown status of this disease in the eastern region of Peninsular Malaysia warrants a study to determine sero-prevalence of orf with regards to farmers' compliance level towards the Herd Health Program (HHP) programme.
RESULTS: Out of 504 animals, 115 were positive for Orf-virus antibodies. An overall prevalence rate of 22.8% indicated a high prevalence of orf disease in this region. It was observed that 25.1% (92/367) of goats were positive and 16.8% (23/137) of sheep sero-converted for Orf virus antibody. Several factors were measured for their possible association with prevalence of Orf virus infection. The prevalence was higher in LY farm, JC breed, kid and female animals, and in the presence of disease lesion. Chi-square analysis showed a significant association of three risk factors which are species, age and sex of the animals (P 0.05). Farms surveyed usually practised intensive management system, keeping animals in the shade at all time, due to limited availability of suitable land as a free-range grazing area. An interview with small holder farmers revealed a lack of awareness of the main goals of herd health programme. An overall compliance level of 42.7% was observed for all HHP parameters. Among the 14 main components of HHP modules, animal identification had recorded highest compliance level (84.62%) while milking management recorded the least compliance (- 82.69%). That explained why there was a high sporadic prevalence of Orf infection in this region.
CONCLUSION: Good herd health supervision is a rehearsal target to prevent an outbreak and the spread of diseases thus reduces economic losses among farmers. Therefore, a good herd health programme should be in place, in order to prevent and control disease transmission as well as to improve herd immunity.

Matched MeSH terms: Ecthyma, Contagious/epidemiology*
The re-emerging of orf virus infection: A call for surveillance, vaccination and effective control measures

Bala JA, Balakrishnan KN, Abdullah AA, Mohamed R, Haron AW, Jesse FFA, et al.

Microb Pathog, 2018 Jul;120:55-63.
PMID: 29709684 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2018.04.057

Orf disease is known to be enzootic among small ruminants in Asia, Africa, and some other parts of the world. The disease caused by orf virus is highly contagious among small ruminant species. Unfortunately, it has been neglected for decades because of the general belief that it only causes a self-limiting disease. On the other hand, in the past it has been reported to cause huge cumulative financial losses in livestock farming. Orf disease is characterized by localized proliferative and persistent skin nodule lesions that can be classified into three forms: generalized, labial and mammary or genitals. It can manifest as benign or malignant types. The later type of orf can remain persistent, often fatal and usually causes a serious outbreak among small ruminant population. Morbidity and mortality rates of orf are higher especially in newly infected kids and lambs. Application of antibiotics together with antipyretic and/or analgesic is highly recommended as a supportive disease management strategy for prevention of subsequent secondary microbial invasion. The presence of various exotic orf virus strains of different origin has been reported in many countries mostly due to poorly controlled cross-border virus transmission. There have been several efforts to develop orf virus vaccines and it was with variable success. The use of conventional vaccines to control orf is a debatable topic due to the concern of short term immunity development. Following re-infection in previously vaccinated animals, it is uncommon to observe the farms involved to experience rapid virus spread and disease outbreak. Meanwhile, cases of zoonosis from infected animals to animal handler are not uncommon. Despite failures to contain the spread of orf virus by the use of conventional vaccines, vaccination of animals with live orf virus is still considered as one of the best choice. The review herein described pertinent issues with regard to the development and use of potential effective vaccines as a control measure against orf virus infection.

Matched MeSH terms: Ecthyma, Contagious/immunology; Ecthyma, Contagious/epidemiology; Ecthyma, Contagious/prevention & control*; Ecthyma, Contagious/virology
Identification of strain diversity and phylogenetic analysis based on two major essential proteins of Orf viruses isolated from several clinical cases reported in Malaysia

Bala JA, Balakrishnan KN, Jesse FFA, Abdullah AA, Noorzahari MSB, Ghazali MT, et al.

Infect Genet Evol, 2020 01;77:104076.
PMID: 31678648 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2019.104076

There is a little information on the characterization of Orf virus strains that are endemic in Malaysia. The relationship between the severity of disease and the molecular genetic profile of Orf virus strains has not been fully elucidated. This study documented the first confirmed report of contagious ecthyma causing by Orf virus in goats from a selected state of eastern peninsular Malaysia. The disease causes significant debilitation due to the inability of affected animals to suckle which brings a great economic loss to the farmers. A total of 504 animals were examined individually to recognize the affected animals with Orf lesion. Skin scrapping was used to collect the scab material from the infected animals. The presence of Orf virus was confirmed by combination of methods including virus isolation on vero cells, identification by Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and molecular technique using PCR and Sanger sequencing. The results showed the successful isolation of four Orf virus strains with a typical cytopathic effects on the cultured vero cells line. The morphology was confirmed to be Orf virus with a distinctive ovoid and criss cross structure. The phylogenetic analysis revealed that these isolated strains were closely related to each other and to other previously isolated Malaysian orf viruses. In addition these Orf virus strains were closely related to Orf viruses from China and India. This study provides more valuable insight in terms of genotype of Orf virus circulating in Malaysia.

Matched MeSH terms: Ecthyma, Contagious/diagnosis*