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Quantitative trait loci in Anopheles gambiae controlling the encapsulation response against Plasmodium cynomolgi Ceylon

Zheng L, Wang S, Romans P, Zhao H, Luna C, Benedict MQ

BMC Genet, 2003 Oct 24;4:16.
PMID: 14577840

Anopheles gambiae females are the world's most successful vectors of human malaria. However, a fraction of these mosquitoes is refractory to Plasmodium development. L3-5, a laboratory selected refractory strain, encapsulates transforming ookinetes/early oocysts of a wide variety of Plasmodium species. Previous studies on these mosquitoes showed that one major (Pen1) and two minor (Pen2, Pen3) autosomal dominant quantitative trait loci (QTLs) control the melanotic encapsulation response against P. cynomolgi B, a simian malaria originating in Malaysia.

Matched MeSH terms: Insect Vectors/parasitology
The fate of Brugia pahangi microfilariae in Armigeres subalbatus during the first 48 hours post ingestion

Zahedi M

Trop. Med. Parasitol., 1994 Mar;45(1):33-5.
PMID: 7915044

In Armigeres subalbatus, 60% and 3% of the ingested Brugia pahangi microfilariae (mf) respectively migrated into the haemocoel and the thorax within 5 minutes post ingestion (p.i.). Most of the mf had migrated from the gut into the haemocoel within the first 10 minutes p.i. There was no correlation between the number of mf ingested and the migration rate though those in mosquitoes with a low mf burden tend to migrate earlier. At 24 hours p.i., 5-30% of the mf were still in the gut; 19% of these mf were immobile. At 48 hours p.i. only 2% of the mf were mobile. B. pahangi mf isolated from blood meals at 24 hours p.i., failed to develop when inoculated into Armigeres subalbatus. 54% and 73% of the mf isolated from a 24 hour old clotted blood of a B. pahangi-infected cat and fresh peripheral cat blood respectively developed into stage-1 larva. Probably mf left in the midgut at 24 hours p.i. are the young and immature worms and are physiologically incapable of penetrating the gut.

Matched MeSH terms: Insect Vectors/parasitology*
Filaria vector competence of some Anopheles species

Zahedi M, White GB

Trop. Med. Parasitol., 1994 Mar;45(1):27-32.
PMID: 8066378

The filaria vector competence of Anopheles stephensi was compared with Brugia-susceptible Aedes aegypti Liverpool strain, An. gambiae Badagry Lagos strain and An. dirus Perlis Malaysia strain. An. stephensi ingested more Brugia pahangi microfilariae, had the highest infectivity rate and yielded more infective mosquitoes than the other two anopheline species. The overall vector competence of An. stephensi was 0.13 times that of Ae. aegypti, 0.62 times that of An. gambiae and 2.17 times that of An. dirus. However, heavy mortality among infected An. stephensi in the present investigation indicates that the filaria vectorial capacity of the mosquito might be limited epidemiologically. The relationship between filaria vector competence and mosquito foregut armature is discussed. It was observed that the relative vector competence of the three anopheline species tested was in the same order as their relative degrees of armature elaboration. The converse would be expected if foregut armatures really give partial protection to the mosquitoes against filarial infection. It is suggested that high host microfilariae density favours larval survival proportional to the degree of armature development in Anopheles (Cellia) species.

Matched MeSH terms: Insect Vectors/parasitology*
Fulltext Plasmodium knowlesi malaria an emerging public health problem in Hulu Selangor, Selangor, Malaysia (2009-2013): epidemiologic and entomologic analysis

Vythilingam I, Lim YA, Venugopalan B, Ngui R, Leong CS, Wong ML, et al.

Parasit Vectors, 2014;7:436.
PMID: 25223878 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-7-436

While transmission of the human Plasmodium species has declined, a significant increase in Plasmodium knowlesi/Plasmodium malariae cases was reported in Hulu Selangor, Selangor, Malaysia. Thus, a study was undertaken to determine the epidemiology and the vectors involved in the transmission of knowlesi malaria.

Matched MeSH terms: Insect Vectors/parasitology*
Detection of Brugia malayi in mosquitoes by the polymerase chain reaction

Vythilingam I, Boaz L, Wa N

J Am Mosq Control Assoc, 1998 Sep;14(3):243-7.
PMID: 9813819

Accurate identification of filarial parasites in mosquitoes poses a major problem for the coordination of filariasis control programs. Traditional methods are tedious, and some are not specific enough to give satisfactory results. Amplification of specific gene sequences by primer-directed polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has been increasingly utilized as a diagnostic tool. However, current protocols for the extraction of parasite DNA from mosquito samples are tedious and could lead to failure of PCR amplification. We demonstrate that the use of Chelex is an efficient method for DNA extraction from mosquitoes and the parasite and that PCR amplification with primers specific for Brugia malayi yields a band of the expected size. The PCR products were transferred to a nylon membrane with Southern blotting, and a B. malayi-specific digoxigenin-labeled probe confirmed the sequence similarity of the PCR-amplified fragment and increased the sensitivity of the PCR assay. Use of this probe enabled us to detect PCR-amplified product from B. malayi even when a product was not visible on an ethidium bromide-stained agarose gel. This increased sensitivity allowed us to detect the parasite in the heads of mosquitoes.

Matched MeSH terms: Insect Vectors/parasitology
The prevalence of Anopheles (Diptera: Culicidae) mosquitoes in Sekong Province, Lao PDR in relation to malaria transmission

Vythilingam I, Phetsouvanh R, Keokenchanh K, Yengmala V, Vanisaveth V, Phompida S, et al.

Trop Med Int Health, 2003 Jun;8(6):525-35.
PMID: 12791058

A longitudinal study was conducted on the prevalence of Anopheles in three malaria endemic villages in Sekong province, in the southern region of Lao PDR, from August 2000 to October 2001. All night, human landing collections took place in August and October 2000 and April and October 2001, and blood smears were taken for malaria parasites during the same period. Mosquitoes were tested for sporozoite antigen using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. In August 2000 (wet season) and April 2001 (dry season) the ovaries of the mosquitoes were examined for parity. A total of 16 species of Anopheles were caught in the study sites of which An. dirus A, An. maculatus sl and An. jeyporiensis were positive for sporozoites. The entomological inoculation rate (EIR) ranged from 0.06 to 0.25. There was a good correlation between EIR and vectorial capacity in the wet season, especially in Pai Mai where the prevalence of malaria was also high during the wet seasons (11.8 and 10.53). An. dirus A showed ambivalence in their choice of feeding as approximately 50% attacked man indoors and an equal proportion outdoors. An dirus A was the main vector in Pai Mai. The parous rate did not significantly differ between the wet and dry season, although it was higher in the dry season. In Takaio the parasite prevalence ranged from 8.7% (dry season) to 37.1% (wet season) and An. jeyporiensis was the vector, and the risk of infection was 0.85 in the dry season while 0.99 in the wet season. In Toumgno An. maculatus sl was the vector and infection was found only in August and October 2000. However, malaria prevalence ranged from 9.69 to 20.4% and was equally high in the dry season. Cattle were also present close to the houses in all the villages and this might be a contributory factor in the prevalence of malaria.

Matched MeSH terms: Insect Vectors/parasitology*
Fulltext Plasmodium knowlesi in humans: a review on the role of its vectors in Malaysia

Vythilingam I

Trop Biomed, 2010 Apr;27(1):1-12.
PMID: 20562807 MyJurnal

Plasmodium knowlesi in humans is life threatening, is on the increase and has been reported from most states in Malaysia. Anopheles latens and Anopheles cracens have been incriminated as vectors. Malaria is now a zoonoses and is occurring in malaria free areas of Malaysia. It is also a threat to eco-tourism. The importance of the vectors and possible control measures is reviewed here.

Matched MeSH terms: Insect Vectors/parasitology*
Fulltext Transmission potential of Wuchereria bancrofti by Culex quinquefasciatus in urban areas of Malaysia

Vythilingam I, Tan CH, Nazni WA

Trop Biomed, 2005 Jun;22(1):83-5.
PMID: 16880760 MyJurnal

Laboratory strain of the Malaysian Culex quinquefasciatus was susceptible to Wuchereria bancrofti. Thirty three percent of the Cx. quinquefasciatus that fed on W. bancrofti patient were infective after 12-14 days. There is a possibility for W. bancrofti to occur in the urban areas of the Malaysia in the near future.

Matched MeSH terms: Insect Vectors/parasitology*
Zoonotic infection with Onchocerca dewittei japonica in an 11-year-old boy in Kansai Region, Western Honshu, Japan

Uni S, Fukuda M, Ogawa K, Lim YA, Agatsuma T, Bunchom N, et al.

Parasitol Int, 2017 Oct;66(5):593-595.
PMID: 28648713 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2017.06.006

An 11-year-old boy living in Otsu City, Shiga Prefecture, Kansai Region, Western Honshu, Japan had zoonotic onchocercosis. The patient developed a painful swelling on the little finger of his left hand. The worm detected in the excised mass had external transverse ridges but did not have inner striae in the cuticle. On the basis of the parasite's histopathological characteristics, the causative agent was identified as a female Onchocerca dewittei japonica (Spirurida: Onchocercidae). The species of the filarial parasite was confirmed by sequencing the cox1 gene of the parasite. The Japanese wild boar Sus scrofa leucomystax is a definitive host for O. dewittei japonica, which is then transmitted by blackflies as the vector to humans. The current case described occurred in the Kansai Region, Western Honshu, where such infections were previously not reported.

Matched MeSH terms: Insect Vectors/parasitology
Zoonotic Brugia pahangi filariasis in a suburbia of Kuala Lumpur City, Malaysia

Tan LH, Fong MY, Mahmud R, Muslim A, Lau YL, Kamarulzaman A

Parasitol Int, 2011 Jan;60(1):111-3.
PMID: 20951228 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2010.09.010

Five local Malaysian patients with clinical manifestations consistent with lymphatic filariasis were referred to our medical centre between 2003 and 2006. Although no microfilariae (mf) were detected in their nocturnal blood samples, all were diagnosed to have lymphatic filariasis on the basis of clinical findings and positive serology results. PCR on their blood samples revealed that two of the patients were infected with Brugia pahangi, an animal filarial worm hitherto not known to cause human disease in the natural environment. All the patients were successfully treated with anti-filarial drugs: four patients were treated with a combination of diethylcarbamazine (DEC) and albendazole, and one with doxycycline. Four of them were residents of Petaling Jaya, a residential suburbia located 10 km southwest of Kuala Lumpur city, Malaysia. The fifth patient was a frequent visitor of the suburbia. This suburbia has no history or record of B. malayi infection. The most likely vector of the worm was Armigeres subalbatus as extensive entomological surveys within the suburbia revealed only adult females of this mosquito species were infected with B. pahangi larvae. Wild monkeys caught in the suburbia were free from B. pahangi mf, but domestic cats were mf positive. This suggests that infected cats might be the source of the zoonotic infection in the suburbia.

Matched MeSH terms: Insect Vectors/parasitology
Fulltext Bionomics of Anopheles latens in Kapit, Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo in relation to the transmission of zoonotic simian malaria parasite Plasmodium knowlesi

Tan CH, Vythilingam I, Matusop A, Chan ST, Singh B

Malar J, 2008;7:52.
PMID: 18377652 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-7-52

A large focus of human infections with Plasmodium knowlesi, a simian parasite naturally found in long-tailed and pig-tailed macaques was discovered in the Kapit Division of Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo. A study was initiated to identify the vectors of malaria, to elucidate where transmission is taking place and to understand the bionomics of the vectors in Kapit.

Matched MeSH terms: Insect Vectors/parasitology
Blackfly vectors of zoonotic onchocerciasis in Japan

Takaoka H, Fukuda M, Otsuka Y, Aoki C, Uni S, Bain O

Med Vet Entomol, 2012 Dec;26(4):372-8.
PMID: 22827756 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2915.2012.01023.x

Studies of blackfly vectors of Onchocerca dewittei japonica Uni, Bain & Takaoka (Spirurida: Onchocercidae), a parasite of wild boar implicated in the aetiology of zoonotic onchocerciasis in Japan, and six other zoonotic Onchocerca species of this country are reviewed. Molecular identification of infective larvae found in wild-caught female blackflies showed that Simulium bidentatum (Shiraki) (Diptera: Simuliidae) is a natural vector of O. dewittei japonica, and also Onchocerca sp. sensu Fukuda et al., another parasite of wild boar. Inoculation experiments demonstrated that Simulium arakawae Matsumura and four other Simulium species are putative vectors. Similarly, S. arakawae, S. bidentatum and Simulium oitanum (Shiraki) are putative vectors of Onchocerca eberhardi Uni & Bain and Onchocerca skrjabini Rukhlyadev, parasites of sika deer. Morphometric studies of infective larvae indicated that Onchocerca lienalis Stiles, a bovine species, is transmitted by S. arakawae, Simulium daisense (Takahasi) and Simulium kyushuense Takaoka, and that Onchocerca sp. sensu Takaoka & Bain, another bovine species, is transmitted by S. arakawae, S. bidentatum, S. daisense and S. oitanum. Prosimulium sp. (Diptera: Simuliidae) and Simulium japonicum Matsumura are suspected vectors of Onchocerca suzukii Yagi, Bain & Shoho and O. skrjabini [Twinnia japonensis Rubtsov (Diptera: Simuliidae) may also transmit the latter], parasites of Japanese serow, following detection of the parasites' DNA genes in wild-caught blackflies.

Matched MeSH terms: Insect Vectors/parasitology*
Fulltext A spatio-temporal agent-based approach for modeling the spread of zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis in northeast Iran

Tabasi M, Alesheikh AA, Sofizadeh A, Saeidian B, Pradhan B, AlAmri A

Parasit Vectors, 2020 Nov 11;13(1):572.
PMID: 33176858 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-04447-x

BACKGROUND: Zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis (ZCL) is a neglected tropical disease worldwide, especially the Middle East. Although previous works attempt to model the ZCL spread using various environmental factors, the interactions between vectors (Phlebotomus papatasi), reservoir hosts, humans, and the environment can affect its spread. Considering all of these aspects is not a trivial task.
METHODS: An agent-based model (ABM) is a relatively new approach that provides a framework for analyzing the heterogeneity of the interactions, along with biological and environmental factors in such complex systems. The objective of this research is to design and develop an ABM that uses Geospatial Information System (GIS) capabilities, biological behaviors of vectors and reservoir hosts, and an improved Susceptible-Exposed-Infected-Recovered (SEIR) epidemic model to explore the spread of ZCL. Various scenarios were implemented to analyze the future ZCL spreads in different parts of Maraveh Tappeh County, in the northeast region of Golestan Province in northeastern Iran, with alternative socio-ecological conditions.
RESULTS: The results confirmed that the spread of the disease arises principally in the desert, low altitude areas, and riverside population centers. The outcomes also showed that the restricting movement of humans reduces the severity of the transmission. Moreover, the spread of ZCL has a particular temporal pattern, since the most prevalent cases occurred in the fall. The evaluation test also showed the similarity between the results and the reported spatiotemporal trends.
CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates the capability and efficiency of ABM to model and predict the spread of ZCL. The results of the presented approach can be considered as a guide for public health management and controlling the vector population .

Matched MeSH terms: Insect Vectors/parasitology
The role of some cyclorrhaphan flies as carriers of human helminths in Malaysia

Sulaiman S, Sohadi AR, Yunus H, Iberahim R

Med Vet Entomol, 1988 Jan;2(1):1-6.
PMID: 2980156

The role of some adult flies (Diptera: Cyclorrhapha) as carriers of helminth parasites of man was studied at four sites in Malaysia: a refuse dump, where no helminth-positive flies were detected, and in three peri-domestic situations where four species of flies carried up to three types of nematodes. The dominant fly species Chrysomya megacephala (Fabricius) carried eggs of the roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides L., the pinworm Trichuris trichiura (L.) and hookworm on the adult external body surface and in the gut lumen, in association with Bukit Lanjan aborigines. Chrysomya rufifacies (Macquart) and Sarcophaga spp. also had Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichurus trichiura eggs in their gut contents. Human helminths were not recovered from Lispe leucospila (Wiedemann), Lucilia cuprina (Wiedemann) or the housefly Musca domestica L. In an urban slum area of Kuala Lumpur city, filariform larvae identified as the hookworm Necator americanus (Stiles) occurred in the intestines of the face-fly Musca sorbens Wiedemann (22 larvae per 100 flies) and of Chrysomya megacephala (4.5 larvae per 100 flies). This concentration of apparently infective N. americanus in M. sorbens, a fly which often breeds in faeces and browses on human skin, could have transmission potential.

Matched MeSH terms: Insect Vectors/parasitology*
Bionomics and vectorial capacity of Anopheles annularis with special reference to India: a review

Singh RK, Haq S, Kumar G, Dhiman RC

J Commun Dis, 2013 Mar-Jun;45(1-2):1-16.
PMID: 25141549

Anopheles annularis is widely distributed mosquito species all over the country. An. annularis has been incriminated as a malaria vector in India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Indonesia, Malaysia and China. In India, it has been reported to play an important role in malaria transmission as a secondary vector in certain parts of Assam, West Bengal and U.P. In Odisha and some neighbouring countries such as Sri Lanka, Nepal and Myanmar it has been recognised as a primary vector of malaria. This is a species complex of two sibling species A and B but the role of these sibling species in malaria transmission is not clearly known. An. annularis is resistant to DDT and dieldrin/HCH and susceptible to malathion and synthetic pyrethorides in most of the parts of India. In view of rapid change in ecological conditions, further studies are required on the bionomics of An. annularis and its role in malaria transmission in other parts of the country. Considering the importance of An. annularis as a malaria vector, the bionomics and its role in malaria transmission has been reviewed in this paper. In this communication, an attempt has been made to review its bionomics and its role as malaria vector. An. annularis is a competent vector of malaria, thus, due attention should be paid for its control under the vector control programmes specially in border states where it is playing a primary role in malaria transmission.

Matched MeSH terms: Insect Vectors/parasitology*
Habitat characterization and mapping of Anopheles maculatus (Theobald) mosquito larvae in malaria endemic areas in Kuala Lipis, Pahang, Malaysia

Rohani A, Wan Najdah WM, Zamree I, Azahari AH, Mohd Noor I, Rahimi H, et al.

Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health, 2010 Jul;41(4):821-30.
PMID: 21073056

In Peninsular Malaysia, a large proportion of malaria cases occur in the central mountainous and forested parts of the country. As part of a study to assess remote sensing data as a tool for vector mapping, we conducted entomological surveys to determine the type of mosquitoes, their characteristics and the abundance of habitats of the vector Anopheles maculatus in malaria endemic areas in Pos Senderot. An. maculatus mosquitoes were collected from 49 breeding sites in Pos Senderot. An. maculatus preferred to breed in water pockets formed on the bank of rivers and waterfalls. The most common larval habitats were shallow pools 5.0-15.0 cm deep with clear water, mud substrate and plants or floatage. The mosquito also preferred open or partially shaded habitats. Breeding habitats were generally located at 100-400 m from the nearest human settlement. Changes in breeding characteristics were also observed. Instead of breeding in slow flowing streams, most larvae bred in small water pockets along the river margin.

Matched MeSH terms: Insect Vectors/parasitology*
Comparative field evaluation of residual-sprayed deltamethrin WG and deltamethrin WP for the control of malaria in Pahang, Malaysia

Rohani A, Zamree I, Lim LH, Rahini H, David L, Kamilan D

Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health, 2006 Nov;37(6):1139-48.
PMID: 17333767

The bioefficacy of indoor residual-sprayed deltamethrin wettable granule (WG) formulation at 25 mg a.i./m2 and 20 mg a.i./m2 for the control of malaria was compared with the current dose of 20 mg/m2 deltamethrin wettable powder (WP) in aboriginal settlements in Kuala Lipis, Pahang, Malaysia. The malaria vector has been previously identified as Anopheles maculatus. The assessment period for the 20 mg/m2 dosage was six months, but for the 25 mg/m2 dosage, the period was 9 months. Collections of mosquitoes using the bare-leg techniques were carried out indoors and outdoors from 7:00 PM to 7:00 AM. All mosquitoes were dissected for sporozoites and parity. Larval collections were carried out at various locations to assess the extent and distribution of breeding of vectors. A high incidence of human feeds was detected during May 2005 and a low incidence during January 2005 for all the study areas. Our study showed that deltamethrin WG at 25 mg/m2 suppressed An. maculatus biting activity. More An. maculatus were caught in outdoor landing catches than indoor landing catches for all the study areas. The results indicate that 25 mg/m2 WG is good for controlling malaria for up to 9 months. Where residual spraying is envisaged, the usual two spraying cycles per year with 20 mg/m2 deltamethrin may be replaced with 25 mg/m2 deltamethrin WG every 9 months.

Matched MeSH terms: Insect Vectors/parasitology
Species composition of adult Anopheles populations and their breeding habitats in Hulu Perak district, Peninsular Malaysia

Rahman WA, Adanan CR, Abu Hassan A

Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health, 2002 Sep;33(3):547-50.
PMID: 12693589

Using the cow-baited trap (CBT) method, 1,845 Anopheles mosquitos, comprising 14 species, were caught in malaria-endemic area of Hulu Perak district, Peninsular Malaysia. The two dominant species were An. barbirostris (18.59%) and An. aconitus (18.86%). Anopheles maculatus, the main malaria vector, constituted 9.11% of the total number of mosquitos sampled. Three hundred and seventy-seven Anopheles larvae, comprising 8 species, were sampled using the North Carolina Biological Station dipper. Anopheles barbirostris larvae amounted to 64.69% of the total number of larvae; An. aconitus accounted for 10.65% of larvae. Seven habitats were identified as breeding places of Anopheles. Most species were found to breed in paddies, fishponds, and rivers. Other less popular habitats were temporary pools, mountain streams, and spring wells.

Matched MeSH terms: Insect Vectors/parasitology*
Fulltext Malaria and Anopheles mosquitos in Malaysia

Rahman WA, Che'Rus A, Ahmad AH

Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health, 1997 Sep;28(3):599-605.
PMID: 9561615

Until today, malaria is still one of the most important diseases in Malaysia. This is because Malaysia is located within the equatorial zone with high temperatures and humidities, usually important for the transmission of malaria. The number of malaria cases were estimated to be around 300,000 before the launching of the Malaria Eradication Program (MEP). The program was successful in reducing the numbers progressively during the 1967-1982 period. During the period 1980-1991, the highest number of malaria cases recorded for the country was 65,283 in 1989 (16,902 in Peninsular Malaysia, 47,545 in Sabah and 836 in Sarawak) whilst the lowest was 22,218 (10,069 in Peninsular Malaysia, 11,290 in Sabah and 859 in Sarawak) in 1983. In Malaysia, there are 434 species of mosquitos, representing 20 genera. Of these, 75 species are Anopheles that comprise of 2 subgenus, i.e. Anopheles and Cellia. Of the 75 species, only 9 have been reported as vectors: An. maculatus, An balabacensis, An. dirus, An. letifer An. campestris, An. sundaicus, An. donaldi, An. leucophyrus and An. flavirostris. The behavior, seasonal abundance, biting activities and breeding sites of these species are discussed.

Matched MeSH terms: Insect Vectors/parasitology*
Genetic diversity and DNA barcoding of the black fly (Diptera: Simuliidae) vectors of parasites causing human onchocerciasis in Guatemala

Pramual P, Bunchom N, Saijuntha W, Tada I, Suganuma N, Agatsuma T

Trop Biomed, 2019 Dec 01;36(4):938-957.
PMID: 33597465

Genetic variation based on mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) and II (COII) sequences was investigated for three black fly nominal species, Simulium metallicum Bellardi complex, S. callidum Dyar and Shannon, and S. ochraceum Walker complex, which are vectors of human onchocerciasis from Guatemala. High levels of genetic diversity were found in S. metallicum complex and S. ochraceum complex with maximum intraspecific genetic divergences of 11.39% and 4.25%, respectively. Levels of genetic diversity of these nominal species are consistent with species status for both of them as they are cytologically complexes of species. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that the S. metallicum complex from Guatemala divided into three distinct clades, two with members of this species from several Central and South American countries and another exclusively from Mexico. The Simulium ochraceum complex from Guatemala formed a clade with members of this species from Mexico and Costa Rica while those from Ecuador and Colombia formed another distinct clade. Very low diversity in S. callidum was found for both genes with maximum intraspecific genetic divergence of 0.68% for COI and 0.88% for COII. Low genetic diversity in S. callidum might be a consequence of the result being informative of only recent population history of the species.

Matched MeSH terms: Insect Vectors/parasitology

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