STUDY DESIGN: A cross-sectional survey was done involving 707 different flavours and packaging of instant noodles sold in six hypermarkets and retailer chains in Malaysia and the corresponding brand's official websites in 2017.

METHODS: The salt content (gram per serving and per 100 g) was collected from the product packaging and corresponding brand's official website.

RESULTS: Of the 707 different packaging and flavours of instant noodles, only 62.1% (n=439) provided the salt content in their food label.The mean (±SD) salt per 100 g of instant noodles was 4.3±1.5 g and is nearly four times higher than the salt content of food classified in Malaysia as a high salt content (>1.2 g salt per 100 g). The salt content for instant noodle per packaging ranged from 0.7 to 8.5 g. 61.7% of the instant noodles exceeded the Pacific Salt Reduction Target, 11.8% exceeded the WHO recommended daily salt intake of <5.0 per day and 5.50% exceeded Malaysia Salt Action Target. 98% of instant noodles will be considered as high salt food according to the Malaysia Guidelines.The probability of the instant noodles without mixed flavour (n=324) exceeding the Pacific Salt Reduction Target was tested on univariate and multivariate analysis. Instant noodles with soup, Tom Yam flavour, pork flavour and other flavours were found to be predictors of instant noodles with the tendency to exceed Pacific Salt Reduction Target when compared with instant noodles without mixed flavours (p<0.05).

METHODS: A cross-sectional market survey was conducted in 2017 of 233 sauces sold in Malaysian supermarkets. Information on the sodium content was collected from the product packaging and nutrient information panels of the sauces sold in the seven top supermarkets in the capital of Malaysia.

RESULTS: Of the 233 sauces surveyed, 116 did not include sodium content information on the nutrient information panel (49.8%). Soy sauce (particularly sweet soy sauce) and ketchup (particularly chilli sauce) were found to be the highest number of products surveyed in the analysis (N=54 and N=48, respectively). The highest sodium content information was displayed by fish/prawn sauce (budu/cencalok) (5192±3228 mg/100 g) which was followed by the light/thin soy sauce (5116±2084 mg/100 g), and followed by salty soy sauce (4780±988 mg/100 g). The sodium content information of the imported sauces was higher compared with local products produced in Malaysia. However, for sweet soy sauce, the sodium content information of the local products was higher compared with the imported products. Of the 116 sauces which displayed information regarding their sodium content, only 18.2% of the salty soy sauce and 25% of the light/thin soy sauce were found to be below the 2017 Malaysian sodium guidelines. Furthermore, only 21.7% of chilli ketchup and no tomato ketchup were below the 2017 UK salt guidelines.

OBJECTIVES: Here, we provide an up-to-date review of the epidemiology, aetiology, diagnosis and clinical management of MIH.

MATERIALS AND METHODS: A review of the contemporary basic science and clinical literature, relating to MIH, was undertaken using information obtained (up to 10 April 2020) from the electronic databases PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science and the Cochrane Library.

RESULTS: There is a growing body of evidence relating to the aetiology, presentation and clinical management of MIH. Current knowledge appears to be focused on potential genetic aspects, as well as the development and validation of indices for the diagnosis and management of MIH. There has also been increasing recognition of the global and individual burden of this common condition.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS: This study is a qualitative analysis of stakeholder views towards salt reduction. Participants will be recruited from five zones of Malaysia (Western, Northern, Eastern and Southern regions and East Malaysia), including policy-makers, non-governmental organisations, food industries, school canteen operators, street food vendors and consumers, to participate in focus group discussions or in-depth interviews. Interviews will be transcribed and analysed using thematic analysis. Barriers will be identified and used to develop a tailored salt reduction strategy.

DESIGN: A qualitative study involving twenty-two focus group discussions and six in-depth interviews was conducted, recorded and transcribed verbatim. An inductive thematic analysis approach was employed to analyse the data.

SETTING: Two in-depth interviews and twenty-two focus group discussions were conducted face-to-face. Four in-depth interviews were conducted online.

PARTICIPANTS: Focus group discussions were conducted among twenty-three street food vendors, twenty-one caterers and seventy-six consumers of various eateries. In-depth interviews were conducted among two street food vendors and four caterers, individually.

RESULTS: Consumers and food operators perceived a high-salt intake within Malaysia's out-of-home food sectors. Food operators emphasised the necessity for a comprehensive salt reduction policy in the out-of-home sector involving all stakeholders. Consumers faced limited awareness and knowledge, counterproductive practices among food operators and challenges in accessing affordable low-Na food products, whereas food operators faced the lack of standardised guidelines and effective enforcement mechanisms and uncooperative consumer practices. Both groups expressed that food quality and price of salt were also the barriers, and they advocated for awareness promotion, enhanced regulation of manufactured food products and stricter enforcement targeting vendors. Consumers also suggested promoting and recognising health-conscious food premises, whereas food operators suggested on knowledge enhancement tailored to them, strategies for gaining consumers acceptance and maintaining food quality.