Displaying publications 1 - 20 of 79 in total

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  1. The control of haemorrhagic septicaemia in West Malaysia
    Thomas J
    Trop Anim Health Prod, 1972;4(2):95-101.
    PMID: 4671395
  2. Fulltext The change of Barthel Index scores from the time of discharge until 3-month post-discharge among acute stroke patients in Malaysia: A random intercept model
    Musa KI, Keegan TJ
    PLoS One, 2018;13(12):e0208594.
    PMID: 30571691 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0208594
    BACKGROUND: Acute stroke results in functional disability measurable using the well-known Barthel Index. The objectives of the study are to describe the change in the Barthel Index score and to model the prognostic factors for Barthel Index change from discharge up to 3 months post-discharge using the random intercept model among patients with acute first ever stroke in Kelantan, Malaysia.

    METHODS: A total 98 in-hospital first ever acute stroke patients were recruited, and their Barthel Index scores were measured at the time of discharge, at 1 month and 3 months post-discharge. The Barthel Index was scored through telephone interviews. We employed the random intercept model from linear mixed effect regression to model the change of Barthel Index scores during the three months intervals. The prognostic factors included in the model were acute stroke subtypes, age, sex and time of measurement (at discharge, at 1 month and at 3 month post-discharge).

    RESULTS: The crude mean Barthel Index scores showed an increased trend. The crude mean Barthel Index at the time of discharge, at 1-month post-discharge and 3 months post-discharge were 35.1 (SD = 39.4), 64.4 (SD = 39.5) and 68.8 (SD = 38.9) respectively. Over the same period, the adjusted mean Barthel Index scores estimated from the linear mixed effect model increased from 39.6 to 66.9 to 73.2. The adjusted mean Barthel Index scores decreased as the age increased, and haemorrhagic stroke patients had lower adjusted mean Barthel Index scores compared to the ischaemic stroke patients.

    CONCLUSION: Overall, the crude and adjusted mean Barthel Index scores increase from the time of discharge up to 3-month post-discharge among acute stroke patients. Time after discharge, age and stroke subtypes are the significant prognostic factors for Barthel Index score changes over the period of 3 months.

  3. Tradition and advance in medicine
    THOMAS JW
    Med J Malaya, 1954 Jun;8(4):283-90.
    PMID: 13193266
  4. Severe fetal growth restriction secondary to placental implantation on intrauterine synechiae
    Hong J, Hong J, Thomas J, Kumar S
    Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol, 2024 Jan 10.
    PMID: 38197232 DOI: 10.1002/uog.27574
  5. Biomedical applications of chitosan electrospun nanofibers as a green polymer - Review
    Kalantari K, Afifi AM, Jahangirian H, Webster TJ
    Carbohydr Polym, 2019 Mar 01;207:588-600.
    PMID: 30600043 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2018.12.011
    This review outlines new developments in the biomedical applications of environmentally friendly ('green') chitosan and chitosan-blend electrospun nanofibers. In recent years, research in functionalized nanofibers has contributed to the development of new drug delivery systems and improved scaffolds for regenerative medicine, which is currently one of the most rapidly growing fields in all of the life sciences. Chitosan is a biopolymer with non-toxic, antibacterial, biodegradable and biocompatible properties. Due to these properties, they are widely applied for biomedical applications such as drug delivery, tissue engineering scaffolds, wound dressings, and antibacterial coatings. Electrospinning is a novel technique for chitosan nanofiber fabrication. These nanofibers can be used in unique applications in biomedical fields due to their high surface area and porosity. The present work reviews recent reports on the biomedical applications of chitosan-based nanofibers in detail.
  6. Letter
    Foose TJ, Van Strien N, Khan MKBM
    Conserv Biol, 1995 Oct;9(5):977-978.
    PMID: 34261287 DOI: 10.1046/j.1523-1739.1995.9509772.x
  7. Fulltext Status of Plant Protein-Based Green Scaffolds for Regenerative Medicine Applications
    Jahangirian H, Azizi S, Rafiee-Moghaddam R, Baratvand B, Webster TJ
    Biomolecules, 2019 10 17;9(10).
    PMID: 31627453 DOI: 10.3390/biom9100619
    In recent decades, regenerative medicine has merited substantial attention from scientific and research communities. One of the essential requirements for this new strategy in medicine is the production of biocompatible and biodegradable scaffolds with desirable geometric structures and mechanical properties. Despite such promise, it appears that regenerative medicine is the last field to embrace green, or environmentally-friendly, processes, as many traditional tissue engineering materials employ toxic solvents and polymers that are clearly not environmentally friendly. Scaffolds fabricated from plant proteins (for example, zein, soy protein, and wheat gluten), possess proper mechanical properties, remarkable biocompatibility and aqueous stability which make them appropriate green biomaterials for regenerative medicine applications. The use of plant-derived proteins in regenerative medicine has been especially inspired by green medicine, which is the use of environmentally friendly materials in medicine. In the current review paper, the literature is reviewed and summarized for the applicability of plant proteins as biopolymer materials for several green regenerative medicine and tissue engineering applications.
  8. Abacá bunchy top virus, a new member of the genus Babuvirus (family Nanoviridae)
    Sharman M, Thomas JE, Skabo S, Holton TA
    Arch Virol, 2008;153(1):135-47.
    PMID: 17978886 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-007-1077-z
    Two isolates of a novel babuvirus causing "bunchy top" symptoms were characterised, one from abacá (Musa textilis) from the Philippines and one from banana (Musa sp.) from Sarawak (Malaysia). The name abacá bunchy top virus (ABTV) is proposed. Both isolates have a genome of six circular DNA components, each ca. 1.0-1.1 kb, analogous to those of isolates of Banana bunchy top virus (BBTV). However, unlike BBTV, both ABTV isolates lack an internal ORF in DNA-R, and the ORF in DNA-U3 found in some BBTV isolates is also absent. In all phylogenetic analyses of nanovirid isolates, ABTV and BBTV fall in the same clade, but on separate branches. However, ABTV and BBTV isolates shared only 79-81% amino acid sequence identity for the putative coat protein and 54-76% overall nucleotide sequence identity across all components. Stem-loop and major common regions were present in ABTV, but there was less than 60% identity with the major common region of BBTV. ABTV and BBTV were also shown to be serologically distinct, with only two out of ten BBTV-specific monoclonal antibodies reacting with ABTV. The two ABTV isolates may represent distinct strains of the species as they are less closely related to each other than are isolates of the two geographic subgroups (Asian and South Pacific) of BBTV.
  9. Pontamine fast scarlet 4B bifluorescence and measurements of cellulose microfibril angles
    Thomas J, Idris NA, Collings DA
    J Microsc, 2017 10;268(1):13-27.
    PMID: 28654160 DOI: 10.1111/jmi.12582
    Pontamine fast scarlet 4B is a red paper and textiles dye that has recently been introduced as a fluorescent probe for plant cell walls. Pontamine exhibits bifluorescence, or fluorescence dependent on the polarization of the excitation light: Because cellulose is aligned within the cell wall, pontamine-labelled cell walls exhibit variable fluorescence as the excitation polarization is modulated. Thus, bifluorescence measurements require polarized excitation that can be directly or indirectly modulated. In our confocal microscopy observations of various cellulose samples labelled with pontamine, we modulated excitation polarization either through sample rotation or by the confocal's scanfield rotation function. This variably rotated laser polarizations on Leica confocal microscopes, but not those from other makers. Beginning with samples with directly observable microfibril orientations, such as purified bacterial cellulose, the velamen of orchid roots and the inner S2 layer of radiata pine compression wood, we demonstrate that modelling the variations in pontamine fluorescence with a sine curve can be used to measure the known microfibril angles. We then measured average local microfibril angles in radiata pine samples, and showed similar microfibril angles in compression and normal (opposite) wood. Significantly, bifluorescence measurements might also be used to understand the degree of local cellulose alignment within the cell wall, as opposed to variations in the overall cellulose angle.
  10. Survey of Staphylococcus isolates among hospital personnel, environment and their antibiogram with special emphasis on methicillin resistance
    Shobha KL, Rao PS, Thomas J
    Indian J Med Microbiol, 2005 Jul;23(3):186-8.
    PMID: 16100427
    The objective of this study was to find the prevalence of Staphylococcus spp. carriage among hospital personnel and hospital environment and their antibiogram with special emphasis on methicillin resistance. A total of 205 samples from hospital personnel and environment were collected from casualty, oncology and multidisciplinary cardiac unit ward of Kasturba Medical College Hospital, Manipal. Samples were collected using sterile cotton wool swabs and inoculated into brain heart infusion broth. Subcultures were done onto blood agar and MacConkey's agar. Isolates were identified by standard methods up to species level. Antimicrobial susceptibility test was performed according to standardized disc diffusion Kirby-Bauer method. Each of the isolates was screened for methicillin resistance using oxacillin disc on Mueller Hinton agar plate followed by MIC for methicillin and cefoxitin susceptibility test by disc diffusion method. Sixty five out of 205 strains (31.7%) were Staphylococcus spp. and all of them were coagulase negative. Most of the strains belonged to S.epidermidis 49.23% (32/65) followed by S. saprophyticus 26.15% (17/65). Maximum isolates of S.epidermidis were from anterior nares 28.12% (9/32 strains of S.epidermidis). Highest number of methicillin resistant coagulase negative strains (3/9, 33.33%) were isolated from stethoscope of multidisciplinary cardiac unit ward followed by carriers in the anterior nares (2/9, 22.22%). Methicillin resistant coagulase negative staphylococci are prevalent in anterior nares of hospital personnel and in the hospital environment thereby providing a definite source for hospital acquired infection. All isolates were sensitive to vancomycin, ciprofloxacin and amikacin.
  11. Fulltext Development of a biocompatible nanodelivery system for tuberculosis drugs based on isoniazid-Mg/Al layered double hydroxide
    Saifullah B, Arulselvan P, El Zowalaty ME, Fakurazi S, Webster TJ, Geilich BM, et al.
    Int J Nanomedicine, 2014;9:4749-62.
    PMID: 25336952 DOI: 10.2147/IJN.S63608
    The primary challenge in finding a treatment for tuberculosis (TB) is patient non-compliance to treatment due to long treatment duration, high dosing frequency, and adverse effects of anti-TB drugs. This study reports on the development of a nanodelivery system that intercalates the anti-TB drug isoniazid into Mg/Al layered double hydroxides (LDHs). Isoniazid was found to be released in a sustained manner from the novel nanodelivery system in humans in simulated phosphate buffer solutions at pH 4.8 and pH 7.4. The nanodelivery formulation was highly biocompatible compared to free isoniazid against human normal lung and 3T3 mouse fibroblast cells. The formulation was active against Mycobacterium tuberculosis and gram-positive bacteria and gram-negative bacteria. Thus results show significant promise for the further study of these nanocomposites for the treatment of TB.
  12. Fulltext Antimycobacterial, antimicrobial, and biocompatibility properties of para-aminosalicylic acid with zinc layered hydroxide and Zn/Al layered double hydroxide nanocomposites
    Saifullah B, El Zowalaty ME, Arulselvan P, Fakurazi S, Webster TJ, Geilich BM, et al.
    Drug Des Devel Ther, 2014;8:1029-36.
    PMID: 25114509 DOI: 10.2147/DDDT.S63753
    The treatment of tuberculosis by chemotherapy is complicated due to multiple drug prescriptions, long treatment duration, and adverse side effects. We report here for the first time an in vitro therapeutic effect of nanocomposites based on para-aminosalicylic acid with zinc layered hydroxide (PAS-ZLH) and zinc-aluminum layered double hydroxides (PAS-Zn/Al LDH), against mycobacteria, Gram-positive bacteria, and Gram-negative bacteria. The nanocomposites demonstrated good antimycobacterial activity and were found to be effective in killing Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. A biocompatibility study revealed good biocompatibility of the PAS-ZLH nanocomposites against normal human MRC-5 lung cells. The para-aminosalicylic acid loading was quantified with high-performance liquid chromatography analysis. In summary, the present preliminary in vitro studies are highly encouraging for further in vivo studies of PAS-ZLH and PAS-Zn/Al LDH nanocomposites to treat tuberculosis.
  13. Fulltext Development of a highly biocompatible antituberculosis nanodelivery formulation based on para-aminosalicylic acid-zinc layered hydroxide nanocomposites
    Saifullah B, Arulselvan P, El Zowalaty ME, Fakurazi S, Webster TJ, Geilich B, et al.
    ScientificWorldJournal, 2014;2014:401460.
    PMID: 25050392 DOI: 10.1155/2014/401460
    Tuberculosis is a lethal epidemic, difficult to control disease, claiming thousands of lives every year. We have developed a nanodelivery formulation based on para-aminosalicylic acid (PAS) and zinc layered hydroxide using zinc nitrate salt as a precursor. The developed formulation has a fourfold higher efficacy of PAS against mycobacterium tuberculosis with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) found to be at 1.40 μg/mL compared to the free drug PAS with a MIC of 5.0 μg/mL. The newly developed formulation was also found active against Gram-positive bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria, and Candida albicans. The formulation was also found to be biocompatible with human normal lung cells MRC-5 and mouse fibroblast cells-3T3. The in vitro release of PAS from the formulation was found to be sustained in a human body simulated phosphate buffer saline (PBS) solution at pH values of 7.4 and 4.8. Most importantly the nanocomposite prepared using zinc nitrate salt was advantageous in terms of yield and free from toxic zinc oxide contamination and had higher biocompatibility compared to one prepared using a zinc oxide precursor. In summary, these promising in vitro results are highly encouraging for the continued investigation of para-aminosalicylic acid and zinc layered hydroxide nanocomposites in vivo and eventual preclinical studies.
  14. Fulltext Synthesis, characterization, and antimicrobial activity of an ampicillin-conjugated magnetic nanoantibiotic for medical applications
    Hussein-Al-Ali SH, El Zowalaty ME, Hussein MZ, Geilich BM, Webster TJ
    Int J Nanomedicine, 2014;9:3801-14.
    PMID: 25143729 DOI: 10.2147/IJN.S61143
    Because of their magnetic properties, magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have numerous diverse biomedical applications. In addition, because of their ability to penetrate bacteria and biofilms, nanoantimicrobial agents have become increasingly popular for the control of infectious diseases. Here, MNPs were prepared through an iron salt coprecipitation method in an alkaline medium, followed by a chitosan coating step (CS-coated MNPs); finally, the MNPs were loaded with ampicillin (amp) to form an amp-CS-MNP nanocomposite. Both the MNPs and amp-CS-MNPs were subsequently characterized and evaluated for their antibacterial activity. X-ray diffraction results showed that the MNPs and nanocomposites were composed of pure magnetite. Fourier transform infrared spectra and thermogravimetric data for the MNPs, CS-coated MNPs, and amp-CS-MNP nanocomposite were compared, which confirmed the CS coating on the MNPs and the amp-loaded nanocomposite. Magnetization curves showed that both the MNPs and the amp-CS-MNP nanocomposites were superparamagnetic, with saturation magnetizations at 80.1 and 26.6 emu g(-1), respectively. Amp was loaded at 8.3%. Drug release was also studied, and the total release equilibrium for amp from the amp-CS-MNPs was 100% over 400 minutes. In addition, the antimicrobial activity of the amp-CS-MNP nanocomposite was determined using agar diffusion and growth inhibition assays against Gram-positive bacteria and Gram-negative bacteria, as well as Candida albicans. The minimum inhibitory concentration of the amp-CS-MNP nanocomposite was determined against bacteria including Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The synthesized nanocomposites exhibited antibacterial and antifungal properties, as well as antimycobacterial effects. Thus, this study introduces a novel β-lactam antibacterial-based nanocomposite that can decrease fungus activity on demand for numerous medical applications.
  15. Fulltext Novel kojic acid-polymer-based magnetic nanocomposites for medical applications
    Hussein-Al-Ali SH, El Zowalaty ME, Hussein MZ, Ismail M, Dorniani D, Webster TJ
    Int J Nanomedicine, 2014;9:351-62.
    PMID: 24453486 DOI: 10.2147/IJN.S53847
    Iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) were synthesized by the coprecipitation of iron salts in sodium hydroxide followed by coating separately with chitosan (CS) and polyethylene glycol (PEG) to form CS-MNPs and PEG-MNPs nanoparticles, respectively. They were then loaded with kojic acid (KA), a pharmacologically bioactive natural compound, to form KA-CS-MNPs and KA-PEG-MNPs nanocomposites, respectively. The MNPs and their nanocomposites were characterized using powder X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, vibrating sample magnetometry, and scanning electron microscopy. The powder X-ray diffraction data suggest that all formulations consisted of highly crystalline, pure magnetite Fe3O4. The Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and thermogravimetric analysis confirmed the presence of both polymers and KA in the nanocomposites. Magnetization curves showed that both nanocomposites (KA-CS-MNPs and KA-PEG-MNPs) were superparamagnetic with saturation magnetizations of 8.1 emu/g and 26.4 emu/g, respectively. The KA drug loading was estimated using ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, which gave a loading of 12.2% and 8.3% for the KA-CS-MNPs and KA-PEG-MNPs nanocomposites, respectively. The release profile of the KA from the nanocomposites followed a pseudo second-order kinetic model. The agar diffusion test was performed to evaluate the antimicrobial activity for both KA-CS-MNPs and KA-PEG-MNPs nanocomposites against a number of microorganisms using two Gram-positive (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis) and one Gram-negative (Salmonella enterica) species, and showed some antibacterial activity, which could be enhanced in future studies by optimizing drug loading. This study provided evidence for the promise for the further investigation of the possible beneficial biological activities of KA and both KA-CS-MNPs and KA-PEG-MNPs nanocomposites in nanopharmaceutical applications.
  16. Fulltext The ability of streptomycin-loaded chitosan-coated magnetic nanocomposites to possess antimicrobial and antituberculosis activities
    El Zowalaty ME, Hussein Al Ali SH, Husseiny MI, Geilich BM, Webster TJ, Hussein MZ
    Int J Nanomedicine, 2015;10:3269-74.
    PMID: 25995633 DOI: 10.2147/IJN.S74469
    Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) were synthesized by the coprecipitation of Fe(2+) and Fe(3+) iron salts in alkali media. MNPs were coated by chitosan (CS) to produce CS-MNPs. Streptomycin (Strep) was loaded onto the surface of CS-MNPs to form a Strep-CS-MNP nanocomposite. MNPs, CS-MNPs, and the nanocomposites were subsequently characterized using X-ray diffraction and were evaluated for their antibacterial activity. The antimicrobial activity of the as-synthesized nanoparticles was evaluated using different Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, as well as Mycobacterium tuberculosis. For the first time, it was found that the nanoparticles showed antimicrobial activities against the tested microorganisms (albeit with a more pronounced effect against Gram-negative than Gram-positive bacteria), and thus, should be further studied as a novel nano-antibiotic for numerous antimicrobial and antituberculosis applications. Moreover, since these nanoparticle bacteria fighters are magnetic, one can easily envision magnetic field direction of these nanoparticles to fight unwanted microorganism presence on demand. Due to the ability of magnetic nanoparticles to increase the sensitivity of imaging modalities (such as magnetic resonance imaging), these novel nanoparticles can also be used to diagnose the presence of such microorganisms. In summary, although requiring further investigation, this study introduces for the first time a new type of magnetic nanoparticle with microorganism theranostic properties as a potential tool to both diagnose and treat diverse microbial and tuberculosis infections.
  17. Fulltext Cardiac Iodine-123-Meta-Iodo-Benzylguanidine Uptake in Carotid Sinus Hypersensitivity
    Tan MP, Murray A, Hawkins T, Chadwick TJ, Kerr SR, Parry SW
    PLoS One, 2015;10(6):e0126241.
    PMID: 26057525 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0126241
    Carotid sinus syndrome is the association of carotid sinus hypersensitivity with syncope, unexplained falls and drop attacks in generally older people. We evaluated cardiac sympathetic innervation in this disorder in individuals with carotid sinus syndrome, asymptomatic carotid sinus hypersensitivity and controls without carotid sinus hypersensitivity.
  18. In vitro evidence consistent with an interaction between wild-type and mutant SOD1 protein associated with canine degenerative myelopathy
    Qi Y, Montague P, Loney C, Campbell C, Shafie INF, Anderson TJ, et al.
    Eur J Neurosci, 2019 12;50(12):3896-3905.
    PMID: 31336405 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.14526
    Canine degenerative myelopathy (DM) is a progressive neurological disorder that may be considered to be a large animal model for specific forms of the fatal human disease, familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (fALS). DM is associated with a c118G>A mutation of the superoxide dismutase 1 (Sod1) gene, and a significant proportion of cases are inherited in an autosomal recessive manner in contrast to the largely, but not exclusively, dominant mode of inheritance in fALS. The consensus view is that these Sod1/SOD1 mutations result in a toxic gain of function but the mechanisms remain unclear. Here we used an in vitro neuroblastoma cell line transfection system to monitor wild-type and mutant forms of SOD1 fusion proteins containing either a Cherry or an enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) tag. These fusion proteins retained SOD1 enzymatic activity on a native gel assay system. We demonstrate that SOD1 aggregate density is significantly higher in DM transfectants compared to wild-type. In addition, we show by co-immunoprecipitation and confocal microscopy, evidence for a potential interaction between wild-type and mutant forms of SOD1 in co-transfected cells. While in vitro studies have shown SOD1 heterodimer formation in fALS models, this is the first report for DM SOD1. Therefore, despite for the majority of cases there is a difference in the mode of inheritance between fALS and DM, a similar interaction between wild-type and mutant SOD1 forms can occur. Clarifying the role of SOD1 in DM may also be of benefit to understanding the role of SOD1 in fALS.
  19. Structure and surface properties of size-tuneable CsPbBr3 nanocrystals
    Hooper TJN, Fang Y, Brown AAM, Pu SH, White TJ
    Nanoscale, 2021 Oct 01;13(37):15770-15780.
    PMID: 34528047 DOI: 10.1039/d1nr04602k
    This investigation has characterised the structure and surface chemistry of CsPbBr3 nanocrystals with controlled diameters between 6.4 to 12.8 nm. The nanocrystals were investigated via a thorough 133Cs solid state NMR and nuclear relaxation study, identifying and mapping radially-increasing nanoscale disorder. This work has formalised 133Cs NMR as a highly sensitive probe of nanocrystal size, which can conveniently analyse nanocrystals in solid forms, as they would be utilised in optoelectronic devices. A combined multinuclear solid state NMR and XPS approach, including 133Cs-1H heteronuclear correlation 2D (HETCOR) NMR, was utilised to study the nanocrystal surface and ligands, demonstrating that the surface is Cs-Br rich with vacancies passivated by didodecyldimethylammonium bromide (DDAB) ligands. Furthermore, it is shown that a negligible amount of phosphonate ligands remain on the powder nanocrystal surface, despite the key role of octylphosphonic acid (OPA) in controlling the colloidal nanocrystal growth. The CsPbBr3 NCs were shown to be structurally stable under ambient conditions for up to 6 months, albeit with some particle agglomeration.
  20. Fulltext Synthesis, characterization, and performance evaluation of multilayered photoanodes by introducing mesoporous carbon and TiO2 for humic acid adsorption
    Hosseini S, Jahangirian H, Webster TJ, Soltani SM, Aroua MK
    Int J Nanomedicine, 2016;11:3969-78.
    PMID: 27574426 DOI: 10.2147/IJN.S96558
    Nanostructured photoanodes were prepared via a novel combination of titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles and mesoporous carbon (C). Four different photoanodes were synthesized by sol-gel spin coating onto a glassy substrate of fluorine-doped tin oxide. The photocatalytic activities of TiO2, TiO2/C/TiO2, TiO2/C/C/TiO2, and TiO2/C/TiO2/C/TiO2 photoanodes were evaluated by exposing the synthesized photoanodes to UV-visible light. The photocurrent density observed in these photoanodes confirmed that an additional layer of mesoporous carbon could successfully increase the photocurrent density. The highest photocurrent density of ~1.022 mA cm(-2) at 1 V/saturated calomel electrode was achieved with TiO2/C/C/TiO2 under an illumination intensity of 100 mW cm(-2) from a solar simulator. The highest value of surface roughness was measured for a TiO2/C/C/TiO2 combination owing to the presence of two continuous layers of mesoporous carbon. The resulting films had a thickness ranging from 1.605 µm to 5.165 µm after the calcination process. The presence of double-layer mesoporous carbon resulted in a 20% increase in the photocurrent density compared with the TiO2/C/TiO2 combination when only a single mesoporous carbon layer was employed. The improved performance of these photoanodes can be attributed to the enhanced porosity and increased void space due to the presence of mesoporous carbon. For the first time, it has been demonstrated here that the photoelectrochemical performance of TiO2 can be improved by integrating several layers of mesoporous carbon. Comparison of the rate of removal of humic acid by the prepared photoanodes showed that the highest performance from TiO2/C/C/TiO2 was due to the highest photocurrent density generated. Therefore, this study showed that optimizing the sequence of mesoporous carbon layers can be a viable and inexpensive method for enhanced humic acid removal.
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