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  1. Wan Salleh WM, Ahmad F, Yen KH
    Nat Prod Commun, 2014 Dec;9(12):1795-8.
    PMID: 25632488
    The study was designed to examine the chemical composition and antimicrobial activities of essential oils extracted from the aerial parts of three Piper species: Piper abbreviatum, P. erecticaule and P. lanatum, all from Malaysia. GC and GC/MS analysis showed qualitative and quantitative differences between these oils. GC and GC-MS analysis of P. abbreviatum, P. erecticaule and P. lanatum oils resulted in the identification of 33, 35 and 39 components, representing 70.5%, 63.4% and 78.2% of the components, respectively. The major components of P. abbreviatum oil were spathulenol (11.2%), (E)-nerolidol (8.5%) and β-caryophyllene (7.8%), whereas P. erecticaule oil mainly contained β-caryophyllene (5.7%) and spathulenol (5.1%). Borneol (7.5%), β-caryophyllene (6.6%) and α-amorphene (5.6%) were the most abundant components in P. lanatum oil. Antimicrobial activity was carried out using disc diffusion and broth micro-dilution method against nine microorganisms. All of the essential oils displayed weak activity towards Gram-positive bacteria with MIC values in the range 250-500 μg/mL. P. erecticaule oil showed the best activity on Aspergillus niger (MIC 31.3 μg/mL), followed by P. lanatum oil (MIC 62.5 μg/mL). This study demonstrated that the essential oils have potential as antimicrobial agents and may be useful in the pharmaceutical and cosmetics industries.
  2. Salleh WM, Ahmad F, Yen KH, Sirat HM
    Int J Mol Sci, 2011;12(11):7720-31.
    PMID: 22174627 DOI: 10.3390/ijms12117720
    Chemical composition, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of the fresh leaves and stems oils of Piper caninum were investigated. A total of forty eight constituents were identified in the leaves (77.9%) and stems (87.0%) oil which were characterized by high proportions of phenylpropanoid, safrole with 17.1% for leaves and 25.5% for stems oil. Antioxidant activities were evaluated by using β-carotene/linoleic acid bleaching, DPPH radical scavenging and total phenolic content. Stems oil showed the highest inhibitory activity towards lipid peroxidation (114.9 ± 0.9%), compared to BHT (95.5 ± 0.5%), while leaves oil showed significant total phenolic content (27.4 ± 0.5 mg GA/g) equivalent to gallic acid. However, the essential oils showed weak activity towards DPPH free-radical scavenging. Evaluation of antimicrobial activity revealed that both oils exhibited strong activity against all bacteria strains with MIC values in the range 62.5 to 250 μg/mL, but weak activity against fungal strains. These findings suggest that the essential oils can be used as antioxidant and antimicrobial agents for therapeutic, nutraceutical industries and food manufactures.
  3. Salleh WM, Ahmad F, Yen KH, Sirat HM
    Nat Prod Commun, 2012 Dec;7(12):1659-62.
    PMID: 23413576
    This study was designed to investigate the antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of the essential oils from Piper officinarum C. DC. GC and GC/MS analysis of the leaf and stem oils showed forty one components, representing 85.6% and 93.0% of the oil, respectively. The most abundant components in the leaf oil were beta-caryophyllene (11.2%), alpha-pinene (9.3%), sabinene (7.6%), beta-selinene (5.3%) and limonene (4.6%), while beta-caryophyllene (10.9%), alpha-phellandrene (9.3%), linalool (6.9%), limonene (6.7%) and alpha-pinene (5.0%) were the main components of the stem oil. The antioxidant activities were determined by using complementary tests: namely beta-carotene-linoleic acid, DPPH radical scavenging and total phenolic assays. The stems oil showed weak activity (IC50 = 777.4 microg/mL) in the DPPH system, but showed moderate lipid peroxidation inhibition in the beta-carotene-linoleic acid system (88.9 +/- 0.35%) compared with BHT (95.5 +/- 0.30%). Both oils showed weak activity against P. aeruginosa and E. coli with M IC values of 250 microg/mL.
  4. Salleh WM, Ahmad F, Yen KH, Zulkifli RM
    Pharm Biol, 2016;54(2):322-30.
    PMID: 25880146 DOI: 10.3109/13880209.2015.1037003
    The ethnopharmacological study of Beilschmiedia indicates that several species are used for the treatment of various ailments.
  5. Salleh WM, Ahmad F, Sirat HM, Yen KH
    EXCLI J, 2012;11:399-406.
    PMID: 27418915
    The essential oils obtained by hydrodistillation from the fresh leaf and stem of Piper porphyrophyllum N.E. Br. were analyzed by GC and GC/MS. Thirty four constituents were identified in the leaf oil, while thirty eight constituents were identified in the stems oil. The most abundant components in the leaf oil included bicyclogermacrene (14.7 %), α-copaene (13.2 %) and β-phellandrene (9.5 %) while sabinene (15.5 %), bicyclogermacrene (12.3 %) and α-copaene (8.1 %) were the main constituents in the stem oil. The evaluation of antibacterial activity by using micro-dilution method revealed that both oils were moderately active against all the Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis) and Gram-negative bacteria (Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas putida and Escherichia coli) with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values in the range 125-1000 µg/ml.
  6. Salleh WM, Ahmad F, Yen KH
    Arch Pharm Res, 2015 Apr;38(4):485-93.
    PMID: 25098422 DOI: 10.1007/s12272-014-0460-z
    The present study aimed to examine the chemical compositions of the essential oils of Beilschmiedia madang and their antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, anticholinesterase and anti-tyrosinase activities. The major constituents of the essential oils of leaf and bark of B. madang were δ-cadinene (17.0 and 20.5 %), β-caryophyllene (10.3 and 6.7 %), α-cubebene (11.3 and 15.6 %), and α-cadinol (5.8 and 10.6 %). The essential oils were screened for their antioxidant activities using 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical, β-carotene/linoleic acid bleaching, and total phenolic content. The bark oil showed the highest β-carotene/linoleic acid bleaching (90.3 % ± 0.2) and DPPH radical scavenging (IC50 212.0 µg/mL), while the highest phenolic content was exhibited by the leaf oil (94.5 % ± 0.3 mg GA/g). The antibacterial and antifungal activities were investigated by the disc diffusion and micro dilution method. The leaf and bark oils showed moderate activity towards Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) value 125 µg/mL. For antifungal assay, the bark oil showed strong activity towards Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus fumigatus with MIC value 62.5 µg/mL. Anticholinesterase and anti-tyrosinase activities were evaluated against Ellman method and mushroom tyrosinase, respectively. The results showed that leaf oil gave significant percentage inhibition (I%: acetylcholinesterase 55.2 %, butyrylcholinesterase 60.4 %, tyrosinase 53.1 %).
  7. Hashim SE, Sirat HM, Yen KH, Ismail IS, Matsuki SN
    Nat Prod Commun, 2015 Sep;10(9):1561-3.
    PMID: 26594759
    Seven compounds were isolated from the n-hexane and chloroform extracts of the flowers and leaves of four Hornstedtia species and their structures were identified using spectroscopic techniques as 3,7,4'-trimethylkaempferol (1), 3,7-dimethylkaempferol (2), 7,4'-dimethylkaempferol (3), 3,5-dimethylkaempferol (4), 3-methylkaempferol (5), stigmast-4-en-3-one (6), and 6-hydroxy-stigmast-4-en-3-one (7). Compounds 1 to 7 were isolated from these species for the first time. They were assayed for free radical scavenging and α-glucosidase inhibition activities. The DPPH assay showed that 3-methylkaempferol (5) was the most potent antioxidant agent with an IC50 value 78.6 µM, followed by 7,4'-dimethylkaempferol (3) (IC50 = 86.1 µM). For α-glucosidase inhibition activity, 3-methylkaempferol (5) exhibited significant inhibitory activity with an IC50 value 21.0 µM. The present study revealed that Hornstedtia species have potential activities as antioxidant and α-glucosidase inhibitors.
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