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  1. Fulltext Novel Alphacoronaviruses and Paramyxoviruses Cocirculate with Type 1 and Severe Acute Respiratory System (SARS)-Related Betacoronaviruses in Synanthropic Bats of Luxembourg
    Pauly M, Pir JB, Loesch C, Sausy A, Snoeck CJ, Hübschen JM, et al.
    Appl Environ Microbiol, 2017 09 15;83(18).
    PMID: 28710271 DOI: 10.1128/AEM.01326-17
    Several infectious disease outbreaks with high mortality in humans have been attributed to viruses that are thought to have evolved from bat viruses. In this study from Luxembourg, the genetic diversity and epidemiology of paramyxoviruses and coronaviruses shed by the bat species Rhinolophus ferrumequinum and Myotis emarginatus were evaluated. Feces collection (n = 624) was performed longitudinally in a mixed-species colony in 2015 and 2016. In addition, feces (n = 254) were collected cross-sectionally from six Myotis emarginatus colonies in 2016. By use of degenerate primers in a nested format, overall prevalences of 1.1% (10/878) and 4.9% (43/878) were determined for paramyxoviruses and coronaviruses. Sequences of the partial RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and spike glycoprotein genes of coronaviruses, as well as sequences of the partial L gene of paramyxoviruses, were obtained. Novel paramyxovirus and Alphacoronavirus strains were identified in different Myotis emarginatus colonies, and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-related Betacoronavirus strains were shed by Rhinolophus ferrumequinum Logistic regression revealed that the level of Alphacoronavirus shedding was highest in July (odds ratio, 2.8; P < 0.01), probably due to periparturient stress. Phylogenetic analyses point to close virus-host coevolution, and the high genetic similarity of the study strains suggests that the Myotis emarginatus colonies in Luxembourg are socially connected. Most interestingly, we show that bats also host Betacoronavirus1 strains. The high similarity of the spike gene sequences of these viruses with mammalian Betacoronavirus 1 strains may be of concern. Both the SARS-related and Betacoronavirus 1 strains detected in bats in Luxembourg may cross the species barrier after a host adaptation process.IMPORTANCE Bats are a natural reservoir of a number of zoonotic pathogens. Several severe outbreaks in humans (e.g., a Nipah virus outbreak in Malaysia in 1998, and the almost global spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome in 2003) have been caused by bat-borne viruses that were transmitted to humans mostly after virus adaptation (e.g., in intermediate animal hosts). Despite the indigenousness of bat species that host viruses with suspected zoonotic potential and despite the zoonotic transmission of European bat 1 lyssavirus in Luxembourg, knowledge about the diversity and epidemiology of bat viruses remains limited in this country. Moreover, in contrast to other European countries, bat viruses are currently not included in the national surveillance activities of this land-locked country. We suggest that this gap in disease surveillance should be addressed, since we show here that synanthropic bats host viruses that may be able to cross the species barrier.
    Matched MeSH terms: SARS Virus/classification; SARS Virus/genetics; SARS Virus/isolation & purification*
  2. Fulltext SARS coronavirus outbreaks past and present-a comparative analysis of SARS-CoV-2 and its predecessors
    Low ZY, Yip AJW, Sharma A, Lal SK
    Virus Genes, 2021 Aug;57(4):307-317.
    PMID: 34061288 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-021-01846-9
    The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), a pneumonic disease caused by the SARS Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is the 7th Coronavirus to have successfully infected and caused an outbreak in humans. Genome comparisons have shown that previous isolates, the SARS-related coronavirus (SARSr-CoV), including the SARS-CoV are closely related, yet different in disease manifestation. Several explanations were suggested for the undetermined origin of SARS-CoV-2, in particular, bats, avian and Malayan pangolins as reservoir hosts, owing to the high genetic similarity. The general morphology and structure of all these viral isolates overlap with analogous disease symptoms such as fever, dry cough, fatigue, dyspnoea and headache, very similar to the current SARS-CoV-2. Chest CT scans for SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV reveal pulmonary lesions, bilateral ground-glass opacities, and segmental consolidation in the lungs, a common pathological trait. With greatly overlapping similarities among the previous coronavirus, the SARS-CoV, it becomes interesting to observe marked differences in disease severity of the SARS-CoV-2 thereby imparting it the ability to rapidly transmit, exhibit greater stability, bypass innate host defences, and increasingly adapt to their new host thereby resulting in the current pandemic. The most recent B.1.1.7, B.1.351 and P.1 variants of SARS-CoV-2, highlight the fact that changes in amino acids in the Spike protein can contribute to enhanced infection and transmission efficiency. This review covers a comparative analysis of previous coronavirus outbreaks and highlights the differences and similarities among different coronaviruses, including the most recent isolates that have evolved to become easily transmissible with higher replication efficiency in humans.
    Matched MeSH terms: SARS Virus/genetics
  3. Fulltext Current updates and research on plant-based vaccines for coronavirus disease 2019
    Uthaya Kumar A, Kadiresen K, Gan WC, Ling APK
    Clin Exp Vaccine Res, 2021 Jan;10(1):13-23.
    PMID: 33628750 DOI: 10.7774/cevr.2021.10.1.13
    The primary outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, causing pneumonia-like symptoms in patients named coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) had evolved into a global pandemic. COVID-19 has surpassed Middle East respiratory syndrome and severe acute respiratory syndrome in terms of rate and scale causing more than one million deaths. Development of an effective vaccine to fight against the spread of COVID-19 is the main goal of many countries around the world and plant-based vaccines are one of the available methods in vaccine developments. Plant-based vaccine has gained its reputation among researchers for its known effective manufacturing process and cost effectiveness. Many companies around the world are participating in the race to develop an effective vaccine by using the plant system. This review discusses different approaches used as well as highlights the challenges faced by various companies and research groups in developing the plant-based COVID-19 vaccine.
    Matched MeSH terms: SARS Virus
  4. Fulltext Comprehensive Structural and Molecular Comparison of Spike Proteins of SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, and Their Interactions with ACE2
    Hatmal MM, Alshaer W, Al-Hatamleh MAI, Hatmal M, Smadi O, Taha MO, et al.
    Cells, 2020 Dec 08;9(12).
    PMID: 33302501 DOI: 10.3390/cells9122638
    The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) has recently emerged in China and caused a disease called coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). The virus quickly spread around the world, causing a sustained global outbreak. Although SARS-CoV-2, and other coronaviruses, SARS-CoV and Middle East respiratory syndrome CoV (MERS-CoV) are highly similar genetically and at the protein production level, there are significant differences between them. Research has shown that the structural spike (S) protein plays an important role in the evolution and transmission of SARS-CoV-2. So far, studies have shown that various genes encoding primarily for elements of S protein undergo frequent mutation. We have performed an in-depth review of the literature covering the structural and mutational aspects of S protein in the context of SARS-CoV-2, and compared them with those of SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV. Our analytical approach consisted in an initial genome and transcriptome analysis, followed by primary, secondary and tertiary protein structure analysis. Additionally, we investigated the potential effects of these differences on the S protein binding and interactions to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), and we established, after extensive analysis of previous research articles, that SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV use different ends/regions in S protein receptor-binding motif (RBM) and different types of interactions for their chief binding with ACE2. These differences may have significant implications on pathogenesis, entry and ability to infect intermediate hosts for these coronaviruses. This review comprehensively addresses in detail the variations in S protein, its receptor-binding characteristics and detailed structural interactions, the process of cleavage involved in priming, as well as other differences between coronaviruses.
    Matched MeSH terms: SARS Virus/genetics; SARS Virus/metabolism*
  5. Fulltext Potential Factors Influencing Repeated SARS Outbreaks in China
    Sun Z, Thilakavathy K, Kumar SS, He G, Liu SV
    Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2020 Mar 03;17(5).
    PMID: 32138266 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17051633
    Within last 17 years two widespread epidemics of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) occurred in China, which were caused by related coronaviruses (CoVs): SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2. Although the origin(s) of these viruses are still unknown and their occurrences in nature are mysterious, some general patterns of their pathogenesis and epidemics are noticeable. Both viruses utilize the same receptor-angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2)-for invading human bodies. Both epidemics occurred in cold dry winter seasons celebrated with major holidays, and started in regions where dietary consumption of wildlife is a fashion. Thus, if bats were the natural hosts of SARS-CoVs, cold temperature and low humidity in these times might provide conducive environmental conditions for prolonged viral survival in these regions concentrated with bats. The widespread existence of these bat-carried or -released viruses might have an easier time in breaking through human defenses when harsh winter makes human bodies more vulnerable. Once succeeding in making some initial human infections, spreading of the disease was made convenient with increased social gathering and holiday travel. These natural and social factors influenced the general progression and trajectory of the SARS epidemiology. However, some unique factors might also contribute to the origination of SARS in Wuhan. These factors are discussed in different scenarios in order to promote more research for achieving final validation.
    Matched MeSH terms: SARS Virus/pathogenicity*
  6. Fulltext A RT-PCR assay for the detection of coronaviruses from four genera
    Xiu L, Binder RA, Alarja NA, Kochek K, Coleman KK, Than ST, et al.
    J Clin Virol, 2020 07;128:104391.
    PMID: 32403008 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2020.104391
    BACKGROUND: During the past two decades, three novel coronaviruses (CoVs) have emerged to cause international human epidemics with severe morbidity. CoVs have also emerged to cause severe epidemics in animals. A better understanding of the natural hosts and genetic diversity of CoVs are needed to help mitigate these threats.

    OBJECTIVE: To design and evaluate a molecular diagnostic tool for detection and identification of all currently recognized and potentially future emergent CoVs from the Orthocoronavirinae subfamily.

    STUDY DESIGN AND RESULTS: We designed a semi-nested, reverse transcription RT-PCR assay based upon 38 published genome sequences of human and animal CoVs. We evaluated this assay with 14 human and animal CoVs and 11 other non-CoV respiratory viruses. Through sequencing the assay's target amplicon, the assay correctly identified each of the CoVs; no cross-reactivity with 11 common respiratory viruses was observed. The limits of detection ranged from 4 to 4 × 102 copies/reaction, depending on the CoV species tested. To assess the assay's clinical performance, we tested a large panel of previously studied specimens: 192 human respiratory specimens from pneumonia patients, 5 clinical specimens from COVID-19 patients, 81 poultry oral secretion specimens, 109 pig slurry specimens, and 31 aerosol samples from a live bird market. The amplicons of all RT-PCR-positive samples were confirmed by Sanger sequencing. Our assay performed well with all tested specimens across all sample types.

    CONCLUSIONS: This assay can be used for detection and identification of all previously recognized CoVs, including SARS-CoV-2, and potentially any emergent CoVs in the Orthocoronavirinae subfamily.

    Matched MeSH terms: SARS Virus/genetics; SARS Virus/isolation & purification
  7. Fulltext Knowledge, attitude and practice on bats-borne diseases among village residents: a pilot study
    Nurul Azmawati, M., Hariz, M.S., Mohd Dzulkhairi, M.R., Shalinawati, R., Ilina, I.
    Medicine & Health, 2018;13(2):48-57.
    MyJurnal
    Ebola virus disease (EVD), Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (SARS-CoV), rabies and Nipah infections were examples of diseases that were related to bats and shook the world with a series of outbreak and epidemic. Through the understanding of bats as potential public health risk, awareness had become vital to prevent another outbreak. This pilot study was done to evaluate the appropriateness of the questionnaires and to determine preliminary data on knowledge, attitude and practices of bats-related infections. Residents of a village were recruited by randomly choosing houses from a list obtained from the local head village. Knowledge, attitude and practice were assessed using a 56-items questionnaire. The study recruited 100 respondents. The questionnaire’s Cronbach Alpha score was 0.817. Majority of the respondents were found to have good knowledge (71%), attitude (99%) and practice (64%) relating to bat-related infection. There was a weak positive correlation between knowledge and practice towards bat-related infections among residents of the study population. Majority (80%) of respondents did not aware that bats can cause rabies, and 84% did not know about rabies vaccination. The result of this pilot study provides a limited but valuable insight into bat-related infection. Overall, respondents had good knowledge, attitude and practice scores towards bats-related infection. However, more awareness is needed to key areas lacking such as in educating awareness about rabies in bats.
    Matched MeSH terms: SARS Virus
  8. Fulltext Assessing the impact of non-pharmaceutical interventions on the transmissibility and severity of COVID-19 during the first five months in the Western Pacific Region
    Yeoh EK, Chong KC, Chiew CJ, Lee VJ, Ng CW, Hashimoto H, et al.
    One Health, 2021 Jun;12:100213.
    PMID: 33506086 DOI: 10.1016/j.onehlt.2021.100213
    While most countries in the Western Pacific Region (WPR) had similar trajectories of COVID-19 from January to May, their implementations of non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) differed by transmission stages. To offer a better understanding for an implementation of multidisciplinary policies in COVID-19 control, we compared the impact of NPIs by assessing the transmissibility and severity of COVID-19 in different phases of the epidemic during the first five months in WPR. In this study, we estimated the piecewise instantaneous reproduction number (R
    t
    ) and the reporting delay-adjusted case-fatality ratio (dCFR) of COVID-19 in seven WPR jurisdictions: Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Japan, Malaysia, Shanghai, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan. According to the results, implementing NPIs was associated with an apparent reduction of the piecewise R
    t
    in two epidemic waves in general. However, large cluster outbreaks raised the piecewise R
    t
    to a high level. We also observed relaxing the NPIs could result in an increase of R
    t
    . The estimated dCFR ranged from 0.09% to 1.59% among the jurisdictions, except in Japan where an estimate of 5.31% might be due to low testing efforts. To conclude, in conjunction with border control measures to reduce influx of imported cases which might cause local outbreaks, other NPIs including social distancing measures along with case finding by rapid tests are also necessary to prevent potential large cluster outbreaks and transmissions from undetected cases. A comparatively lower CFR may reflect the health system capacity of these jurisdictions. In order to keep track of sustained disease transmission due to resumption of economic activities, a close monitoring of disease transmissibility is recommended in the relaxation phase. The report of transmission of SARS CoV-2 to pets in Hong Kong and to mink in farm outbreaks highlight for the control of COVID-19 and emerging infectious disease, the One Health approach is critical in understanding and accounting for how human, animals and environment health are intricately connected.
    Matched MeSH terms: SARS Virus
  9. Impact of COVID-19 in public health: Prevalence and preventive approaches
    Subramaniyan V, Chakravarthi S, Seng WY, Kayarohanam S, Fuloria NK, Fuloria S
    Pak J Pharm Sci, 2020 Jul;33(4):1739-1745.
    PMID: 33583811
    The outbreak of CoVID-19 infection rapidly increases worldwide. Most of the continents affecting from CoVID-19 and still widening its burden disease (Jones DS, 2020; Lai et al., 2020). Along with its fatality rates, CoVID-19 has caused physiological disturbances in the society and termed as "coronophobia". CoVID-19 with renal failure, severe pneumonia and respiratory syndrome patients have been reported to increase the severity of disease conditions (Sevim et al., 2020). Also, CoVID-19 with cancer patients increase the higher risk of infections. Currently, there is no vaccine or specific treatment against CoVID-19 and drug research centres continuously investigating the potential drug against CoVID-19 (Osama and Amer, 2020). For the past 20 years two major coronavirus epidemics have occurred in public includes SARS-CoV approximately 8000 cases and 800 deaths and MERS-CoV 2,500 cases and 800 deaths and these continuing sporadically (Cascella et al., 2020).
    Matched MeSH terms: SARS Virus
  10. Toona sinensis Roem tender leaf extract inhibits SARS coronavirus replication
    Chen CJ, Michaelis M, Hsu HK, Tsai CC, Yang KD, Wu YC, et al.
    J Ethnopharmacol, 2008 Oct 30;120(1):108-11.
    PMID: 18762235 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2008.07.048
    Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is a life-threatening disease caused by the SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV). The development of new antiviral agents for SARS-CoV is an important issue. We tried to find potential resource from Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) for development of new drugs against SARS-CoV.
    Matched MeSH terms: SARS Virus/drug effects*
  11. Fulltext Protective Immunity against SARS Subunit Vaccine Candidates Based on Spike Protein: Lessons for Coronavirus Vaccine Development
    Khalaj-Hedayati A
    J Immunol Res, 2020;2020:7201752.
    PMID: 32695833 DOI: 10.1155/2020/7201752
    The recent outbreak of the novel coronavirus disease, COVID-19, has highlighted the threat that highly pathogenic coronaviruses have on global health security and the imminent need to design an effective vaccine for prevention purposes. Although several attempts have been made to develop vaccines against human coronavirus infections since the emergence of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) in 2003, there is no available licensed vaccine yet. A better understanding of previous coronavirus vaccine studies may help to design a vaccine for the newly emerged virus, SARS-CoV-2, that may also cover other pathogenic coronaviruses as a potentially universal vaccine. In general, coronavirus spike protein is the major antigen for the vaccine design as it can induce neutralizing antibodies and protective immunity. By considering the high genetic similarity between SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2, here, protective immunity against SARS-CoV spike subunit vaccine candidates in animal models has been reviewed to gain advances that can facilitate coronavirus vaccine development in the near future.
    Matched MeSH terms: SARS Virus/genetics; SARS Virus/immunology
  12. Fulltext Inflammasomes and Pyroptosis as Therapeutic Targets for COVID-19
    Yap JKY, Moriyama M, Iwasaki A
    J Immunol, 2020 Jul 15;205(2):307-312.
    PMID: 32493814 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2000513
    The inflammatory response to severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus 2 infection has a direct impact on the clinical outcomes of coronavirus disease 2019 patients. Of the many innate immune pathways that are engaged by severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus 2, we highlight the importance of the inflammasome pathway. We discuss available pharmaceutical agents that target a critical component of inflammasome activation, signaling leading to cellular pyroptosis, and the downstream cytokines as a promising target for the treatment of severe coronavirus disease 2019-associated diseases.
    Matched MeSH terms: SARS Virus/physiology
  13. Bats and emerging zoonoses: henipaviruses and SARS
    Field HE
    Zoonoses Public Health, 2009 Aug;56(6-7):278-84.
    PMID: 19497090 DOI: 10.1111/j.1863-2378.2008.01218.x
    Nearly 75% of all emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) that impact or threaten human health are zoonotic. The majority have spilled from wildlife reservoirs, either directly to humans or via domestic animals. The emergence of many can be attributed to predisposing factors such as global travel, trade, agricultural expansion, deforestation/habitat fragmentation, and urbanization; such factors increase the interface and/or the rate of contact between human, domestic animal, and wildlife populations, thereby creating increased opportunities for spillover events to occur. Infectious disease emergence can be regarded as primarily an ecological process. The epidemiological investigation of EIDs associated with wildlife requires a trans-disciplinary approach that includes an understanding of the ecology of the wildlife species, and an understanding of human behaviours that increase risk of exposure. Investigations of the emergence of Nipah virus in Malaysia in 1999 and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in China in 2003 provide useful case studies. The emergence of Nipah virus was associated with the increased size and density of commercial pig farms and their encroachment into forested areas. The movement of pigs for sale and slaughter in turn led to the rapid spread of infection to southern peninsular Malaysia, where the high-density, largely urban pig populations facilitated transmission to humans. Identifying the factors associated with the emergence of SARS in southern China requires an understanding of the ecology of infection both in the natural reservoir and in secondary market reservoir species. A necessary extension of understanding the ecology of the reservoir is an understanding of the trade, and of the social and cultural context of wildlife consumption. Emerging infectious diseases originating from wildlife populations will continue to threaten public health. Mitigating and managing the risk requires an appreciation of the connectedness between human, livestock and wildlife health, and of the factors and processes that disrupt the balance.
    Matched MeSH terms: SARS Virus
  14. Fulltext Novel coronavirus- A comprehensive review
    Nair AM, Shilpa PH, Shekhar V, Tiwari RVC, Shaik I, Dasari B, et al.
    J Family Med Prim Care, 2020 Jul;9(7):3200-3204.
    PMID: 33102270 DOI: 10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_496_20
    Recently coronavirus outbreak which started in Wuhan, China, has caused international concern that has affected more than 29 lakh people worldwide and with no vaccine or specific antiviral drugs present as well as oblivious testing of carriers who are generally asymptomatic, the use of general health intervention techniques are failing to comply. As compared to other epidemics like severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and the Middle-East respiratory syndrome (MERS-CoV), coronavirus (also named as COVID-19) exhibit mild symptoms in the majority of cases. But in the case of a vulnerable population, it can prove to be life-threatening. Relying on proper barrier technique, use of chest computed tomography scans, managing co-morbid conditions of susceptible patients, identifying the pattern of disease spread as well as the use of polymerase chain reaction to assess the specificity of cases will eventually prove to be efficacious since most of the positive cases are asymptomatic at the beginning which poses a challenge to the primary health care physicians. The development of vaccines will also take some time so it is better to know about COVID-19 better and also follow quarantine restrictions properly till then. In this review, we try to put forward all the relevant studies which have been published by the end of March 2020 so as to summarize the natural history, diagnosis as well as treatment strategies for eradicating COVID-19, which will help in managing this pandemic.
    Matched MeSH terms: SARS Virus
  15. Fulltext Viral Pandemics of the Last Four Decades: Pathophysiology, Health Impacts and Perspectives
    Roychoudhury S, Das A, Sengupta P, Dutta S, Roychoudhury S, Choudhury AP, et al.
    Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2020 12 15;17(24).
    PMID: 33333995 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17249411
    The twenty-first century has witnessed some of the deadliest viral pandemics with far-reaching consequences. These include the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) (1981), Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (SARS-CoV) (2002), Influenza A virus subtype H1N1 (A/H1N1) (2009), Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) (2012) and Ebola virus (2013) and the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) (2019-present). Age- and gender-based characterizations suggest that SARS-CoV-2 resembles SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV with regard tohigher fatality rates in males, and in the older population with comorbidities. The invasion-mechanism of SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV, involves binding of its spike protein with angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptors; MERS-CoV utilizes dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4), whereas H1N1 influenza is equipped with hemagglutinin protein. The viral infections-mediated immunomodulation, and progressive inflammatory state may affect the functions of several other organs. Although no effective commercial vaccine is available for any of the viruses, those against SARS-CoV-2 are being developed at an unprecedented speed. Until now, only Pfizer/BioNTech's vaccine has received temporary authorization from the UK Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. Given the frequent emergence of viral pandemics in the 21st century, proper understanding of their characteristics and modes of action are essential to address the immediate and long-term health consequences.
    Matched MeSH terms: SARS Virus
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