This study aims to determine the job satisfaction (JS) level among professional driving instructors (PDIs) in the driver
training and licensing system in Malaysia. Specifically, it looks at the influence of income level and remuneration
scheme on PDI’s satisfaction. The average income of PDI is relatively low with three remuneration schemes: fixed
income; fixed income plus commission; and commission only. The study adopted the cross-sectional survey using the
20-item Minnesota Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) (short-form) with end-specified 10-point scale. Analysis of
the data revealed that PDIs with higher income are more satisfied with their job, t (179) = -3.248, p = 0.001.
Similarly, three level One-way ANOVA of JS scores with three remuneration schemes revealed a significant difference
of JS across these schemes, F (2,178) = 3.51, p ≤ 0.032. Researchers’ further exploration found a significant
interaction between these two variables (income level vs. remuneration scheme), F (5,175) = 4.88, p = 0.001. In
general, PDIs with higher income are more satisfied with their job only if they received it as a fixed income
(regardless of having commission or not). This insightful finding can be a basis for relevant stakeholders in
understanding the influence of income and remuneration scheme towards JS among PDIs in Malaysia.
Discomfort and pain issue at the body part are common complaints reported by car drivers. It is due to driving task
require physical demands and need to maintain and adapt several postures in a constrained space while controlling
the car. Hence, this study aims to determine the pattern of shoulder activation muscle consisting of the Trapezius
muscle in two different driving posture. Respondents were required to grasp the steering wheel at 8 and 4 hand
position. The Surface Electromyography was used to get the reading for left muscle’s Trapezius Descendent (TD) at
two different positions; i) closest distant from steering wheel and ii) far distant from the steering wheel. Then,
Temporal Analysis was used to evaluate the pattern of the driving action. From the experiment, it shows the
different value of muscle activation occurred while driving according to turning action. The far seated position
depicted greater activation on driving action compared to the closer seated to the steering wheel. In conclusion, the
driving posture effects the activation of shoulder and arm’s muscles as early as after 20 seconds of driving activity.
Hence, choosing the correct driving posture allowed a comfortable driving environment for the driver.
Proper driving requires a proper posture to bring comfort to drivers. A problem that commonly exists in driving is
incorrect driving posture which can cause discomfort to the driver, especially when interacting with automotive
pedals. Research on fatigue of Soleus muscle on driver's posture based on the knee angle more than 144º in a
position of pressing and releasing a pedal was conducted to investigate and overcome this problem. This is a field
experiment study and surface electromyography (sEMG) is used in collecting data on the Soleus muscle. The
procedure of collecting data on the Soleus muscle before and after experiments follows the Surface
Electromyography for the Non-Invasive Assessment of Muscles (SENIAM) recommendation. The result of the
experiments shows that there is a strong positive relationship between driver's postures in nature based on the angle
of the knee with Soleus muscle contraction, where the Pearson correlation coefficient (r) is .890. While the muscle
fatigue index based on value MDF (MNF) in position of pressing a pedal. The results show that the Soleus muscle
fatigue occurs when the foot pressing a pedal on MVC-normalized 60%. This is because the value of MDF (MNF) there
is displacement of decrease of frequency MDF (MNF), from 130.21 Hz (313.42 Hz) to 127.60 Hz (312.49 Hz). The
increase in the knee angle will directly provide discomfort to the driver while interacting with the pedal; and this is
due to Soleus muscle fatigue.
Safe driving requires an ideal posture to bring comfort to drivers. A problem that commonly exists in driving is nonideal
driving posture, which can cause discomfort to the driver, especially when interacting with automotive pedals.
Research on contraction of Soleus muscle on driver's posture based on the knee angle more than 144º in a position of
pressing and releasing a pedal was conducted to investigate and overcome this problem. This is a field experimental
study and surface electromyography (sEMG) is used in collecting data on the Soleus muscle. The procedure of
collecting data on the Soleus muscle before and after experiments follows the Surface Electromyography for the
Non-Invasive Assessment of Muscles (SENIAM) recommendations. The result from the experiment shows that there is
a strong positive relationship between driver's postures in nature based upon the angle at the knee with Soleus
muscle contraction, where the Pearson correlation coefficient (r) is .990. While the temporal analysis measurements
based on Maximum Voluntary Isometric Contraction (MVIC) 60% in a position of pressing a pedal exceeding rms µV
25.34, and 25.47 respectively. On the other hand, MVIC 3% rms µV values: 1.18, 1.21 and 1.26 are obtained from the
position of releasing the pedal. The knee angle with Soleus muscle contractions is significant [F (1, 10) = 38.06,
p
Road Safety remainsone the most important issuesaffecting educational institutions especiallythe school. The
prevalence of road accidentsin recent news reportsunderlines the importance of this issue. Such accidents involving
school pupils have further escalated this concern. As such,safety awareness among school teachersis crucial in order
for them to identify the suitable methods to prevent more road accidents in future. This study was conducted to
analyse teachers’ awareness of road safety in school to gauge the training requirementson road safety. Road safety
education and training in school is just as important as improving safety for road users outside schools. For this
study, a set of survey questionnaire wasdistributedto 400 school teachers from 111 schools randomly selected from
the 10 District Education Offices in Kelantan. Results were then analysed using Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS). From the results, 40% of respondentswere male and 60% of them were female. Descriptive analysis
showed that school teachers understood road safety as 90% of them possessed basic safety knowledge, while 10% of
them lacked basicknowledge on road safety. However, they did not implement safety practice that may have
contributed to unfortunate eventshappening outside of school including road accidents as reported in the news. This
study suggests that school teachers must undergo road safety training to promote and improve road safety in
school.With higher awareness and more information about the road safety, the teacherscould create a safer
environment in their school. Undoubtedly, teachers have a vital roleto ensure safety of their pupils and their
commitment will likely reduce the number of road accidents.
Pedestrians' fatality trend in road crashes has been improving in recent years though it remains third in rank behind
motorcyclists and car occupants. Based on the statistics, young pedestrians were the most affected group and the
commonest injury regions were head and legs. Pedestrian crashes occurred primarily in rural areas and straight roads
and at low light environment, and often involve cars and motorcycles. In addition to existing issues of careless and
illegal crossing practices, there are potential new hazards face by pedestrian, which are mobile electronic device use
and electric vehicle, especially when crossing roads. Road safety programs and interventions shall consider these new
issues.
This paper reviews various papers since the year 2000 until 2016 regarding visual technology in human anthropometry
study, and discusses three major points; (1) the methods and objectives of the research, (2) the subjects of the
experiments and (3) body parts involved in the anthropometrical measurements. Measurement using visual
technology is claimed to be more accurate in obtaining anthropometrical data compared to the conventional method
using manual tools. However, commercial visual technology system can be very costly. Based on the reviewed
studies, a significant amount of research has adopted various visual processing methods to predict the human’s body
measurement. All of the studies utilized the applications of enhanced technologies that are able to reduce time and
human errors that normally occur during traditional hand-operated measurement. Usually, in order to prove that
their result is promising, the studies compared their results with the results gained from manual measurement. The
finding from this review is a preliminary step towards developing a camera-based system in anthropometry
measurement for the use in automotive ergonomics design.
Measuring discomfort towardthe car seat is important as the act of driving requires a driver to remain at the car seat
while controlling the car. The seat condition, including sitting position as well as the driver’s posture can lead to
discomfort and fatigue. The objective of this study is to investigate a driver’s pressure distribution in static and
dynamic circumstances for two types of cars; the sedan and compact car. This study involved both subjective and
objective evaluations of 12 respondents. For the subjective evaluation, the Visual Analog Scales (VAS) were used to
obtain respondents' perception of discomfort. For the objective evaluation, pressure distribution readings of the seat
interface were obtained using piezo capacitive sensors. The findings showed that the highest pressure was recorded
for the compact car. Furthermore, the static circumstance showed greater pressure compared to the dynamic state.
Subjective evaluation indicated that the right buttocks and the lower back (lumbar)experience the highest discomfort
for both types of seats.The type of seat found to contribute to the value of different pressure. Thus, it can be
concluded that appropriate seat selection can reduce pressure as well as discomfort.
Research on environmental ergonomics of train/commuter is very limited. Thus, this study was conducted with aims
to determine the environmental ergonomic of public transport, whether it is in accordance to indoor air quality
standard inside women coach cabin train during operations. Although the number of passengers is increasing, some
claimed that the indoor air quality for the Malaysian commuter train is uncertain, especially at peak times.
Unsatisfactory feedback from some respondents—especially female passengers—will affect other passengers to
remain loyal to use this facility as one of the main transportation to reduce the traffic congestion that will be faced
if using private vehicles. The study conducted during peak hours on the weekends and the trip took exactly two hours
and covered 18 main stations. The measurement devices placed at the centre of the cabin Komuter using Air Quality
Meter (AIRFLOW Instrument Model TA465). The main parameters measured were temperature, humidity, and carbon
dioxide (CO2). This study also counts the number of passengers riding the train. The results showed that the indoor
air quality (AIQ) level of the morning hour will affect passengers’ health more compared to the evening hour (this is
due to the CO2 level that has exceeded the safety standard). Morning hour gave higher reading of CO2 (43.8%) and
relative humidity (17%) compared to evening hour. Evening hours also showed greater temperature at 3%. The
findings can give awareness to the train company to improve the IAQ by installing a suitable ventilation system and
can give comfort to the passengers when travelling using Malaysian commuter train.
This study is aimed at seat design optimization for high-speed train based on the Malaysians sitting anthropometry
data focusing on seat fit parameters. An analysis of anthropometry data composed of 15 dimensions that are
required in seat design was done with 50 male subjects. These data were collected through direct measuring
methods with standard equipment. According to the Malaysian automotive seat fit parameters, the backrest width,
backrest height, cushion width, and cushion length were established based on these anthropometric dimensions:
interscye breadth (5th percentile female and 95th percentile male), hip breadth (95th percentile female), sitting
shoulder height (5th percentile female), and buttock-popliteal length (5th percentile female), respectively. This
study uses the CATIA software to design and analyse the proposed seat design. The fit parameters proposed for the
new design are seat height, 380mm; cushion width, 450mm; backrest width, 450mm and backrest height, 850mm.
The CATIA human activity analysis (based on Rapid Upper Limb Analysis, RULA) was also executed. From the study,
the new conceptual seat design gives the most optimized fit when compared to the current seat.
Child restraint system (CRS) can protect children in the event of crash and reduce the severity of injuries. As such, it
is crucial to understand the prevalence of CRS usage and knowledge attributes on CRS usage among drivers. This
study aims to assessdrivers’ knowledge on CRS usage.A semi-structured questionnaire was developed and pilot tested
to verify its validity and reliability. The questionnaireaddressesdrivers’ knowledge about CRS currently available in
the Malaysian market, the types of restraints used and views on fitting restraints to passenger vehicles. Seventy four
percentfrom 500 respondents cited that they are usingor theyhave used CRS,64% knowabout CRS and its function, and
43% areawareof ISOFIX. In short, majority of the respondents are aware of CRS use and functions. Awareness and
education program should berigorously introduced to public towards the implementation of the CRS law.
Aesthetic value of the automotive car seat has been one of the selling points of each car besides
providing functions such as being safe, supportive as well provides comfort to the occupants. Other
criteria considered besides the aesthetic element are cushion foam and self-adjustment factor.
Ergonomics is not a new issue because most of the existing seat design today have already practiced it.
Existing car seat manufacturers have considered anthropometry data. The average upon 95th percentile of
human measurement had been deliberated. However, issues such as time spent driving and seat design
issue have arisen upon the search of comfort and rising of musculoskeletal disease such as back pain. As a
solution, this study would propose an automotive car seat design of ergonomic evolution, which would
create comfort by manipulating the seat cushion foams. The proposed seat cushion foam would be use to
replace the existing polymers with beanbag foam. This is inspire by the nature of beanbag, fitting up and
providing comfort to the occupants of various body sizes and shapes. Malaysian anthropometry
measurements are required for design of car seat, which later compared with the existing seats of
commercial vehicle. The literature review showed the pressure mapping technique of respondent seating
on the existing car seat. The most sensitive compartments where discomfort are experienced studied and
placed with sachets filed with beanbag beads. This experiment conducted many times over a few
respondents by using the pressure mat to find out, if there are any changes in terms of comfort. This
design of new car seat with a manipulation cushion foam replaced with beanbag foam could be a niche to
eliminate discomfort to all range body sizes and shapes.
MeSH terms: Anthropometry; Back Pain; Esthetics; Humans; Musculoskeletal Diseases; Polymers; Pressure; Surveys and Questionnaires; Body Size
While driving, a driver is required to control the steering wheel to change direction. The driver’s muscles of the upper
limbs and shoulders are involved in such a task. Therefore, an assessment of the driver’s physiology according to
certain condition is necessary to improve driving comfort and safety. This study aims to investigate the driver’s
Deltoid Anterior (DA) muscle activity while operating the steering wheel. Eleven test subjects were recruited for an
experiment using a car simulator. They were required to remain in the car seat and perform the task of steering the
wheel. Surface electromyography (SEMG) was used to record each subject’s muscle contraction while turning the
steering wheel to the right and left by several degrees. According to the findings, 45 degrees turning recorded the
highest Root mean Square (RMS) value for DA. In addition, DA muscle activation increased with more degrees turning.
Prolonged sitting is one of the factors for back discomfort. Sitting in the same position for long periods of time is worse.
This experimental based study was conducted to achieve three objectives. There were to 1) identify whether is there any
differences between perceived body discomfort among respondents before and after upright sitting, 2) identify whether
is there any differences between perceived body discomfort among respondents before and after slump sitting and 3)
compare the level of perceived body discomfort among respondents after two sitting postures. Thirty young and healthy
adults were recruited as study respondents. Each respondent was asked to sit in a posture either upright or slump for 30
minutes. Respondents were then rated their body discomfort using Borg CR-10 scale before and after sitting. Another
sitting posture was carried out after one day interval. There is a significant difference between perceived body
discomfort among respondents before and after upright and slump sitting. Body discomfort of upright sitting was shown
significantly greater than slump sitting. Although, slump sitting caused less discomfort than upright, but it proven by
previous studies did not provide benefit to occupational safety and health practice in preventing occupational health
related disease.
MeSH terms: Adult; Back Pain; Humans; Perception; Posture; Surveys and Questionnaires; Occupational Health
This study was conducted to analyses the Biceps Brachii (BB) muscle contraction during different driving postures.
Drivers’ posture is one of the factors that contribute to driving fatigue that eventually may lead to road accident
and injuries. The experiment conducted for this study is using the surface electromyography (SEMG) method for
objective evaluation of muscle involved in driving activities. A total of 14 participants are involved in the
experiment. The experiment was done on three different posture based on comfortable angles published by previous
research. From the results analysis, the RMS value for activity left turn is lower than activity for right turn for all
three postures and results also shows that posture B with elbow angle of 134° is perceived as most comfortable
based on the lowest value of muscle contraction with a value of 15.67μV. The outcomes from this study are hoped to
benefit both manufactures and also car users in ensuring better and optimum driving postures that can avoid fatigue
and injuries.
The best commonly applied approach in seating ergonomics is the concept that the seat must fit the sitter.
Understanding of population anthropometry is necessary because, in the mass vehicle market, a single seat should fit
a huge portion of the population. This research work proposes some automotive seat fit parameters based on a
representative Nigerian anthropometric data, to ensure an optimum fit between the vehicle seats and the occupants,
as well as providing adequate accommodation. Anthropometric data of 863 Nigerians captured with special emphasis
on the dimensions that are applicable in automotive seat design. A comparison made between the data obtained and
that of five other countries. The proposed dimensions includes: seat cushion width (475mm); seat cushion length
(394mm); seat height (340mm); seat lateral location (583mm); seat back height (480mm); seat back width (427mm);
armrest height (246mm); headrest height (703mm); armrest surface length (345mm); backrest width (thoracic level)
(524mm); seat adjustment (186mm); backrest width (lumbar level) (475mm) and distance between armrests
(475mm). A comparison made between the proposed dimensions and those recommended by four other scholars for
other populations. Finally, an ergonomic automotive seat suitable for the Nigerian population was designed using
AutoCAD 2016 software based on the proposed established dimensions.
Working in prolonged standing position among industrial workers has been shown to be associated with different
potentially serious health outcomes, namely lower back pain, leg pain, fatigue, discomfort, and other health issues.
Personalisation of insole offers a solution that will provide a perfect fit and comfort to the shoes wearer based on
the ergonomic considerations. It works in a way that it alters the pressure away from painful areas by increasing the
surface area that supports the weight of the body and evenly distributes it to the whole plantar area. Survey was
conducted among workers at a manufacturing industry company to study on the level of pain experienced by them
together with their foot anthropometry. Then, the foot pressure of each of the workers was collected by using
pressure measurement device (F-scan). Combination of these data was used to design the customized insole that is
fit for the worker. The personalised insoles were fabricated by using Additive Manufacturing technology. After that,
the insoles were validated by using the F-scan and Electromyogram (EMG) to ensure their effectiveness in reducing
pressures on the foot and muscle activity hence improving the comfort of the shoe wearer. At the end of the
experiment, it was found that the insole is able to reduce the peak pressure of four out of five areas of the worker’s
foot with the reduction of pressure percentage ranging from 6% to 28%.
Lane Change Assistance (LCA) system in cars can potentially mitigate blind spot related crashes; but its effectiveness
largely depends on driver acceptance and proper use. Although still in early stages, the volume of cars equipped with
LCA system is expected torise in the near future as the technology has been considered in the New Car Assessment
Program for Southeast Asian Countries (ASEAN NCAP) 2017 Rating Scheme. Therefore, this study is initiated to assess
user acceptance of and experience with LCA-equipped cars. Self-administered questionnaires were distributed to
owners of LCA-equipped cars at selected service centres in the Klang Valley from November 2016 to February 2017.
From a total of 276 valid responses, results revealed that most owners greatly considered LCA system when
purchasing their cars and agreed that the systems had positively altered their driving behaviours i.e. regularly using
the turn signal and checking the side mirrors. Nevertheless, about 20% of the respondents stated theirannoyance and
distraction by the LCA systems due to unnecessary warnings from various sources, aside from getting too many
warnings during traffic congestion. The study findings provide some practical implications that can aid the industry
and relevant stakeholders in gauging the issue and actual situations concerning the use of LCA system in Malaysia.
Road transport is the movement of passengers or goods on the road. To date, issues concerning the safety of students
and school institutions have continued to attract public attention. The recent spate of incidents inside and outside
the school compound has brought the issue of children safety into our attention. These include the escalating number
of road casualties. This study was conducted to observe road hazard outside the school compound and analyse the
safety risks faced by school children by using the risk matrix. The risks are calculated to include likelihood and
severity of hazard as identified in the Guideline of HIRARC 2008. The area selected was the East Coast state of
Peninsular Malaysia, with over 111 schools randomly selected in Kelantan. Results were then analysed and six
highlighted hazards were discussed. The results show that the main road posed the highest risk due to speeding
vehicles. These vehicles failed to slow down when approaching the school area. The school
administration must enhance the safety of the staff, students, and public while in the school area. In conclusion, road
safety awareness must be instilled among teachers, students, parents and road users alike.
MeSH terms: Attention; Awareness; Child; Humans; Malaysia; Parents; Schools; Students
Driving activity has become more important as this medium being practical, it is also cheaper and faster in
connecting human from one to another place. However, in some occurrence, it can cause accidents as they become
fatigued while driving. Driver fatigue is one of the top contributors to the road accidents and can be dangerous as
other road safety issues such as drink driving. Worst is, there are no laws regulating driver fatigue. Therefore, the
main purpose of this study is to develop the regression model of apsychophysical factor for drivers’ fatigue which can
predict the relationship between the process input parameters and output responses. The study was participated by
ten subjects. The heart rate was taken and recorded using heart rate monitor. Design Expert 8.0.6 software was used
for the regression analysis. The modeling validation runs werewithin the 90% prediction intervals of the developed
model and the residual errors were less than 10%. The R
2
value is 0.9400 whichmeans that the linear regression line
passed exactly through all points. The significant parameters that influenced the heart rate were also identified.The
parameters are time exposure, type of road, and gender.