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A cross-sectional study on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on psychological outcomes: Multiple indicators and multiple causes modeling

Aljaberi MA 1 , Alareqe NA 2 , Alsalahi A 3 , Qasem MA 4 , Noman S 5 , Uzir MUH 6 Show all authors , Mohammed LA 7 , Fares ZEA 8 , Lin CY 9 , Abdallah AM 10 , Hamat RA 11 , Mohd Rani MD 12

Affiliations 

  • 1 Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Taiz University, Taiz, Yemen
  • 2 Department of Educational Psychology, Faculty of Education, Taiz University, Taiz, Yemen
  • 3 Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Sana'a University, Sana'a, Yemen
  • 4 Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
  • 5 Department of Community Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
  • 6 Faculty of Business Economics and Social Development, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia
  • 7 Faculty of Social Science, Arts, and Humanities, Lincoln University College, Petaling Jaya, Malaysia
  • 8 Psychological and Educational Research Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Djillali Liabes, Sidi Bel Abbes, Algeria
  • 9 Institute of Allied Health Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
  • 10 Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, QU-Health, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
  • 11 Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
  • 12 Department of Primary Health Care, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia, Nilai, Malaysia
PLoS One, 2022;17(11):e0277368.
PMID: 36350838 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0277368

Abstract

Although the psychological impact of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has been evaluated in the literature, further research is needed, particularly on post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and psychological outcomes, is needed. This study aims to investigate the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on psychological outcomes (depression, anxiety, and insomnia). A cross-sectional study using an online survey was conducted using the following instruments: Impact of Event Scale-Revised (IES-R), Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9), Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD-7), and Insomnia Severity Index (ISI). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), structural equation model (SEM), multiple indicators and multiple causes (MIMIC) modeling, and differential item functioning (DIF) were performed to analyze the collected data. According to the results, participants with PTSD (n = 360) showed a higher level of depression, anxiety, and insomnia than those without PTSD (n = 639). Among the participants, 36.5% experienced moderate to severe symptoms of depression, and 32.6% had mild depressive symptoms. Moreover, 23.7% of participants experienced moderate to severe anxiety symptoms, and 33.1% had mild anxiety symptoms. In addition, 51.5% of participants experienced symptoms of insomnia. In conclusion, the PTSD caused by COVID-19 is significantly associated with depression, anxiety, and insomnia at the level of latent constructs and observed variables.

* Title and MeSH Headings from MEDLINE®/PubMed®, a database of the U.S. National Library of Medicine.

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