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[Emergence of transmissible disorders, a continuous process--a new type of viral meningoencephalitis]

Ivan A, Indrei LL

Rev Med Chir Soc Med Nat Iasi, 2000 Apr-Jun;104(2):51-5.
PMID: 12089991

In the interval 1994-1999, in Australia, Malaysia and Singapore, epizootic and epidemiological episodes of meningoencephalitis and severe acute respiratory syndromes were reported. Highly lethal in horses, swine and humans, the episodes were proved to be caused by the "new" viruses Hendra (HeV) and Nipah (NiV). At the same time three "new" viral agents have been isolated: Lyssavirus, Menanglevirus and Tupaia paramyxovirus. The intense contemporary circulation of people, animals and food products together with changes in human ecosystem favor new relations between humans and the "natural reservoirs" of biologic agents with a pathogenic potential for domestic and peridomestic animals and humans.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/virology
Update: outbreak of Nipah virus--Malaysia and Singapore, 1999

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 1999 Apr 30;48(16):335-7.
PMID: 10366143

During March 1999, health officials in Malaysia and Singapore, in collaboration with Australian researchers and CDC, investigated reports of febrile encephalitic and respiratory illnesses among workers who had exposure to pigs. A previously unrecognized paramyxovirus (formerly known as Hendra-like virus), now called Nipah virus, was implicated by laboratory testing in many of these cases. Febrile encephalitis continues to be reported in Malaysia but has decreased coincident with mass culling of pigs in outbreak areas. No new cases of febrile illness associated with Nipah virus infection have been identified in Singapore since March 19, 1999, when abattoirs were closed. This report summarizes interim findings from ongoing epidemiologic and laboratory investigations in Malaysia and Singapore.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/virology
Trailing a virus

Gibbs WW

Sci. Am., 1999 Aug;281(2):80-7.
PMID: 10443039
Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/virology
Tioman virus, a paramyxovirus of bat origin, causes mild disease in pigs and has a predilection for lymphoid tissues

Yaiw KC, Bingham J, Crameri G, Mungall B, Hyatt A, Yu M, et al.

J Virol, 2008 Jan;82(1):565-8.
PMID: 17913804

Disease manifestation, pathology, and tissue tropism following infection with Tioman virus (TioPV), a newly isolated, bat-derived paramyxovirus, was investigated in subcutaneously (n = 12) and oronasally (n = 4) inoculated pigs. Pigs were either asymptomatic or developed pyrexia, but all of the animals produced neutralizing antibodies. The virus (viral antigen and/or genome) was detected in lymphocytes of the thymus, tonsils, spleen, lymph nodes and Peyer's patches (ileum), tonsillar epithelium, and thymic epithelioreticular cells. Virus was isolated from oral swabs but not from urine. Our findings suggest that the pig could act as an intermediate or amplifying host for TioPV and that oral secretion is a possible means of viral transmission.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/virology*
The pandemic potential of Nipah virus

Luby SP

Antiviral Res, 2013 Oct;100(1):38-43.
PMID: 23911335 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2013.07.011

Nipah virus, a paramyxovirus whose wildlife reservoir is Pteropus bats, was first discovered in a large outbreak of acute encephalitis in Malaysia in 1998 among persons who had contact with sick pigs. Apparently, one or more pigs was infected from bats, and the virus then spread efficiently from pig to pig, then from pigs to people. Nipah virus outbreaks have been recognized nearly every year in Bangladesh since 2001 and occasionally in neighboring India. Outbreaks in Bangladesh and India have been characterized by frequent person-to-person transmission and the death of over 70% of infected people. Characteristics of Nipah virus that increase its risk of becoming a global pandemic include: humans are already susceptible; many strains are capable of limited person-to-person transmission; as an RNA virus, it has an exceptionally high rate of mutation: and that if a human-adapted strain were to infect communities in South Asia, high population densities and global interconnectedness would rapidly spread the infection. Appropriate steps to estimate and manage this risk include studies to explore the molecular and genetic basis of respiratory transmission of henipaviruses, improved surveillance for human infections, support from high-income countries to reduce the risk of person-to-person transmission of infectious agents in low-income health care settings, and consideration of vaccination in communities at ongoing risk of exposure to the secretions and excretions of Pteropus bats.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/virology*
Fulltext The Main Risk Factors of Nipah Disease and Its Risk Analysis in China

Yu J, Lv X, Yang Z, Gao S, Li C, Cai Y, et al.

Viruses, 2018 10 19;10(10).
PMID: 30347642 DOI: 10.3390/v10100572

Nipah disease is a highly fatal zoonosis which is caused by the Nipah virus. The Nipah virus is a BSL-4 virus with fruit bats being its natural host. It is mainly prevalent in Southeast Asia. The virus was first discovered in 1997 in Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia. Currently, it is mainly harmful to pigs and humans with a high mortality rate. This study describes the route of transmission of the Nipah virus in different countries and analyzes the possibility of the primary disease being in China and the method of its transmission to China. The risk factors are analyzed for different susceptible populations to Nipah disease. The aim is to improve people's risk awareness and prevention and control of the disease and reduce its risk of occurring and spreading in China.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/virology*
Fulltext Surveillance for respiratory and diarrheal pathogens at the human-pig interface in Sarawak, Malaysia

Borkenhagen LK, Mallinson KA, Tsao RW, Ha SJ, Lim WH, Toh TH, et al.

PLoS One, 2018;13(7):e0201295.
PMID: 30052648 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0201295

BACKGROUND: The large livestock operations and dense human population of Southeast Asia are considered a hot-spot for emerging viruses.
OBJECTIVES: To determine if the pathogens adenovirus (ADV), coronavirus (CoV), encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV), enterovirus (EV), influenza A-D (IAV, IBV, ICV, and IDV), porcine circovirus 2 (PCV2), and porcine rotaviruses A and C (RVA and RVC), are aerosolized at the animal-interface, and if humans working in these environments are carrying these viruses in their nasal airways.
STUDY: This cross-sectional study took place in Sarawak, Malaysia among 11 pig farms, 2 abattoirs, and 3 animal markets in June and July of 2017. Pig feces, pig oral secretions, bioaerosols, and worker nasal wash samples were collected and analyzed via rPCR and rRT-PCR for respiratory and diarrheal viruses.
RESULTS: In all, 55 pig fecal, 49 pig oral or water, 45 bioaerosol, and 78 worker nasal wash samples were collected across 16 sites. PCV2 was detected in 21 pig fecal, 43 pig oral or water, 3 bioaerosol, and 4 worker nasal wash samples. In addition, one or more bioaerosol or pig samples were positive for EV, IAV, and RVC, and one or more worker samples were positive for ADV, CoV, IBV, and IDV.
CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that nucleic acids from a number of targeted viruses were present in pig oral secretions and pig fecal samples, and that several viruses were detected in bioaerosol samples or in the nasal passages of humans with occupational exposure to pigs. These results demonstrate the need for future research in strengthening viral surveillance at the human-animal interface, specifically through expanded bioaerosol sampling efforts and a seroepidemiological study of individuals with exposure to pigs in this region for PCV2 infection.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/virology*
Fulltext Serological evidence of henipavirus exposure in cattle, goats and pigs in Bangladesh

Chowdhury S, Khan SU, Crameri G, Epstein JH, Broder CC, Islam A, et al.

PLoS Negl Trop Dis, 2014 Nov;8(11):e3302.
PMID: 25412358 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003302

BACKGROUND: Nipah virus (NiV) is an emerging disease that causes severe encephalitis and respiratory illness in humans. Pigs were identified as an intermediate host for NiV transmission in Malaysia. In Bangladesh, NiV has caused recognized human outbreaks since 2001 and three outbreak investigations identified an epidemiological association between close contact with sick or dead animals and human illness.
METHODOLOGY: We examined cattle and goats reared around Pteropus bat roosts in human NiV outbreak areas. We also tested pig sera collected under another study focused on Japanese encephalitis.
PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We detected antibodies against NiV glycoprotein in 26 (6.5%) cattle, 17 (4.3%) goats and 138 (44.2%) pigs by a Luminex-based multiplexed microsphere assay; however, these antibodies did not neutralize NiV. Cattle and goats with NiVsG antibodies were more likely to have a history of feeding on fruits partially eaten by bats or birds (PR=3.1, 95% CI 1.6-5.7) and drinking palmyra palm juice (PR=3.9, 95% CI 1.5-10.2).
CONCLUSIONS: This difference in test results may be due to the exposure of animals to one or more novel viruses with antigenic similarity to NiV. Further research may identify a novel organism of public health importance.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/virology
Fulltext Serological evidence of West Nile viral infection in archived swine serum samples from Peninsular Malaysia

Mohammed MN, Yasmin AR, Noraniza MA, Ramanoon SZ, Arshad SS, Bande F, et al.

J Vet Sci, 2021 May;22(3):e29.
PMID: 33908203 DOI: 10.4142/jvs.2021.22.e29

West Nile virus (WNV), a neurotropic arbovirus, has been detected in mosquitos, birds, wildlife, horses, and humans in Malaysia, but limited information is available on WNV infection in Malaysian pigs. We tested 80 archived swine serum samples for the presence of WNV antibody and West Nile (WN) viral RNA using ID Screen West Nile Competition Multi-species enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits and WNV-specific primers in reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction assays, respectively. A WNV seroprevalence of 62.5% (50/80) at 95% confidence interval (51.6%-72.3%) was recorded, with a significantly higher seroprevalence among young pigs (weaner and grower) and pigs from south Malaysia. One sample was positive for Japanese encephalitis virus antibodies; WN viral RNA was not detected in any of the serum samples.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/virology
Fulltext Risk factors, prevention and communication strategy during Nipah virus outbreak in Malaysia

Chua KB

Malays J Pathol, 2010 Dec;32(2):75-80.
PMID: 21329177 MyJurnal

An outbreak of acute febrile encephalitis affecting pig-farm workers and owners was recognized in peninsular Malaysia as early as September 1998. The outbreak was initially thought to be due to Japanese encephalitis (JE) virus and thus very intensive prevention, control and communication strategies directed at JE virus were undertaken by the Ministry of Health and Ministry of Agriculture of Malaysia. There was an immediate change in the prevention, control and communication strategies with focus and strategies on infected pigs as the source of infections for humans and other animals following the discovery of Nipah virus. Information and understanding the risks of Nipah virus infections and modes of transmission strengthened the directions of prevention, control and communication strategies. A number of epidemiological surveillances and field investigations which were broadly divided into 3 groups covering human health sector, animal health sector and reservoir hosts were carried out as forms of risk assessment to determine and assess the factors and degree of risk of infections by the virus. Data showed that there was significant association between Nipah virus infection and performing activities involving close contact with pigs, such as processing of piglets, administering injection or medication to pigs, assisting in the birth of piglets, assisting in pig breeding, and handling of dead pigs in the affected farms. A complex process of anthropogenic driven deforestation, climatic changes brought on by El Niño-related drought, forest fire and severe haze, and ecological factors of mixed agro-pig farming practices and design of pig-sties led to the spillovers of the virus from its wildlife reservoir into pig population.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/virology
Risk factors for Nipah virus infection among abattoir workers in Singapore

Chew MH, Arguin PM, Shay DK, Goh KT, Rollin PE, Shieh WJ, et al.

J Infect Dis, 2000 May;181(5):1760-3.
PMID: 10823780

During 10-19 March 1999, 11 workers in 1 of 2 Singaporean abattoirs developed Nipah-virus associated encephalitis or pneumonia, resulting in 1 fatality. A case-control study was conducted to determine occupational risk factors for infection. Case patients were abattoir A workers who had anti-Nipah IgM antibodies; control subjects were randomly selected abattoir A workers who tested negative for anti-Nipah IgM. All 13 case patients versus 26 (63%) of 41 control subjects reported contact with live pigs (P=.01). Swine importation from Malaysian states concurrently experiencing a Nipah virus outbreak was banned on 3 March 1999; on 19 March 1999, importation of Malaysian pigs was banned, and abattoirs were closed. No unusual illnesses among pigs processed during February-March were reported. Contact with live pigs appeared to be the most important risk factor for human Nipah virus infection. Direct contact with live, potentially infected pigs should be minimized to prevent transmission of this potentially fatal zoonosis to humans.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/virology
Recombinant nipah virus vaccines protect pigs against challenge

Weingartl HM, Berhane Y, Caswell JL, Loosmore S, Audonnet JC, Roth JA, et al.

J Virol, 2006 Aug;80(16):7929-38.
PMID: 16873250

Nipah virus (NiV), of the family Paramyxoviridae, was isolated in 1999 in Malaysia from a human fatality in an outbreak of severe human encephalitis, when human infections were linked to transmission of the virus from pigs. Consequently, a swine vaccine able to abolish virus shedding is of veterinary and human health interest. Canarypox virus-based vaccine vectors carrying the gene for NiV glycoprotein (ALVAC-G) or the fusion protein (ALVAC-F) were used to intramuscularly immunize four pigs per group, either with 10(8) PFU each or in combination. Pigs were boosted 14 days postvaccination and challenged with 2.5 x 10(5) PFU of NiV two weeks later. The combined ALVAC-F/G vaccine induced the highest levels of neutralization antibodies (2,560); despite the low neutralizing antibody levels in the F vaccinees (160), all vaccinated animals appeared to be protected against challenge. Virus was not isolated from the tissues of any of the vaccinated pigs postchallenge, and a real-time reverse transcription (RT)-PCR assay detected only small amounts of viral RNA in several samples. In challenge control pigs, virus was isolated from a number of tissues (10(4.4) PFU/g) or detected by real-time RT-PCR. Vaccination of the ALVAC-F/G vaccinees appeared to stimulate both type 1 and type 2 cytokine responses. Histopathological findings indicated that there was no enhancement of lesions in the vaccinees. No virus shedding was detected in vaccinated animals, in contrast to challenge control pigs, from which virus was isolated from the throat and nose (10(2.9) PFU/ml). Based on the data presented, the combined ALVAC-F/G vaccine appears to be a very promising vaccine candidate for swine.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/virology
Purification and characterization of Nipah virus nucleocapsid protein produced in insect cells

Eshaghi M, Tan WS, Ong ST, Yusoff K

J Clin Microbiol, 2005 Jul;43(7):3172-7.
PMID: 16000431

The nucleocapsid (N) protein of Nipah virus (NiV) is a major constituent of the viral proteins which play a role in encapsidation, regulating the transcription and replication of the viral genome. To investigate the use of a fusion system to aid the purification of the recombinant N protein for structural studies and potential use as a diagnostic reagent, the NiV N gene was cloned into the pFastBacHT vector and the His-tagged fusion protein was expressed in Sf9 insect cells by recombinant baculovirus. Western blot analysis of the recombinant fusion protein with anti-NiV antibodies produced a band of approximately 62 kDa. A time course study showed that the highest level of expression was achieved after 3 days of incubation. Electron microscopic analysis of the NiV recombinant N fusion protein purified on a nickel-nitrilotriacetic acid resin column revealed different types of structures, including spherical, ring-like, and herringbone-like particles. The light-scattering measurements of the recombinant N protein also confirmed the polydispersity of the sample with hyrdrodynamic radii of small and large types. The optical density spectra of the purified recombinant fusion protein revealed a high A(260)/A(280) ratio, indicating the presence of nucleic acids. Western blotting and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay results showed that the recombinant N protein exhibited the antigenic sites and conformation necessary for specific antigen-antibody recognition.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/virology
Production of the matrix protein of Nipah virus in Escherichia coli: virus-like particles and possible application for diagnosis

Subramanian SK, Tey BT, Hamid M, Tan WS

J Virol Methods, 2009 Dec;162(1-2):179-83.
PMID: 19666056 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2009.07.034

The broad species tropism of Nipah virus (NiV) coupled with its high pathogenicity demand a rapid search for a new biomarker candidate for diagnosis. The matrix (M) protein was expressed in Escherichia coli and purified using a Ni-NTA affinity column chromatography and sucrose density gradient centrifugation. The recombinant M protein with the molecular mass (Mr) of about 43 kDa was detected by anti-NiV serum and anti-myc antibody. About 50% of the M protein was found to be soluble and localized in cytoplasm when the cells were grown at 30 degrees C. Electron microscopic analysis showed that the purified M protein assembled into spherical particles of different sizes with diameters ranging from 20 to 50 nm. The purified M protein showed significant reactivity with the swine sera collected during the NiV outbreak, demonstrating its potential as a diagnostic reagent.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/virology
Production and characterization of monoclonal antibodies against formalin-inactivated Nipah virus isolated from the lungs of a pig

Imada T, Abdul Rahman MA, Kashiwazaki Y, Tanimura N, Syed Hassan S, Jamaluddin A

J Vet Med Sci, 2004 Jan;66(1):81-3.
PMID: 14960818

Eight clones of monoclonal antibodies (Mabs) to Nipah virus (NV) were produced against formalin-inactivated NV antigens. They reacted positive by indirect immunofluorescent antibody test, and one of them also demonstrated virus neutralizing activity. They were classified into six different types based on their biological properties. These Mabs will be useful for immunodiagnosis of NV infections in animals and further research studies involving the genomes and proteins of NV.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/virology*
Organ- and endotheliotropism of Nipah virus infections in vivo and in vitro

Maisner A, Neufeld J, Weingartl H

Thromb. Haemost., 2009 Dec;102(6):1014-23.
PMID: 19967130 DOI: 10.1160/TH09-05-0310

Nipah virus (NiV) is a highly pathogenic paramyxovirus that was first isolated in 1999 during an outbreak in Malaysia. In contrast to other paramyxoviruses NiV infects many mammalian species. Because of its zoonotic potential, the high pathogenicity and the lack of therapeutic treatment, NiV was classified as a biosafety level 4 pathogen. In humans NiV causes a severe acute encephalitis whereas in some animal hosts respiratory symptoms are predominantly observed. Despite the differences in the clinical outcome, microvascular endothelial cell damage predominantly underlies the pathological changes in NiV infections in all susceptible host species. NiV generally induces a pronounced vasculitis which is primarily characterised by endothelial cell necrosis and inflammatory cell infiltration. For future developments of specific antiviral therapies or vaccines, a detailed understanding of the molecular basis of NiV pathogenesis is required. This article reviews the current knowledge about natural and experimental infections in different mammals, focusing on the main organ and cell tropism in vivo, and summarises some recent studies in cell culture on the role of ephrin-B2 and -B3 receptors in NiV infection of endothelial cells.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/virology
Fulltext Nipah virus: a recently emergent deadly paramyxovirus

Chua KB, Bellini WJ, Rota PA, Harcourt BH, Tamin A, Lam SK, et al.

Science, 2000 May 26;288(5470):1432-5.
PMID: 10827955

A paramyxovirus virus termed Nipah virus has been identified as the etiologic agent of an outbreak of severe encephalitis in people with close contact exposure to pigs in Malaysia and Singapore. The outbreak was first noted in late September 1998 and by mid-June 1999, more than 265 encephalitis cases, including 105 deaths, had been reported in Malaysia, and 11 cases of encephalitis or respiratory illness with one death had been reported in Singapore. Electron microscopic, serologic, and genetic studies indicate that this virus belongs to the family Paramyxoviridae and is most closely related to the recently discovered Hendra virus. We suggest that these two viruses are representative of a new genus within the family Paramyxoviridae. Like Hendra virus, Nipah virus is unusual among the paramyxoviruses in its ability to infect and cause potentially fatal disease in a number of host species, including humans.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/virology
Nipah virus--a potential agent of bioterrorism?

Lam SK

Antiviral Res, 2003 Jan;57(1-2):113-9.
PMID: 12615307

Nipah virus, a newly emerging deadly paramyxovirus isolated during a large outbreak of viral encephalitis in Malaysia, has many of the physical attributes to serve as a potential agent of bioterrorism. The outbreak caused widespread panic and fear because of its high mortality and the inability to control the disease initially. There were considerable social disruptions and tremendous economic loss to an important pig-rearing industry. This highly virulent virus, believed to be introduced into pig farms by fruit bats, spread easily among pigs and was transmitted to humans who came into close contact with infected animals. From pigs, the virus was also transmitted to other animals such as dogs, cats, and horses. The Nipah virus has the potential to be considered an agent of bioterrorism.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/virology
Nipah virus strain variation

Pulliam JR, Field HE, Olival KJ, Henipavirus Ecology Research Group

Emerg Infect Dis, 2005 Dec;11(12):1978-9; author reply 1979.
PMID: 16485499
Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/virology*
Nipah virus outbreak in Malaysia

Chua KB

J Clin Virol, 2003 Apr;26(3):265-75.
PMID: 12637075

Nipah virus, a novel paramyxovirus, closely related to Hendra virus emerged in northern part of Peninsular Malaysia in 1998. The virus caused an outbreak of severe febrile encephalitis in humans with a high mortality rate, whereas, in pigs, encephalitis and respiratory diseases but with a relatively low mortality rate. The outbreak subsequently spread to various regions of the country and Singapore in the south due to the movement of infected pigs. Nipah virus caused systemic infections in humans, pigs and other mammals. Histopathological and radiological findings were characteristic of the disease. Fruitbats of Pteropid species were identified as the natural reservoir hosts. Evidence suggested that climatic and anthropogenic driven ecological changes coupled with the location of piggeries in orchard and the design of pigsties allowed the spill-over of this novel paramyxovirus from its reservoir host into the domestic pigs and ultimately to humans and other animals.

Matched MeSH terms: Swine Diseases/virology

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