Endophytic bacteria (Pseudomonas aeruginosa UPMP3 and Burkholderia cepacia UMPB3), isolated from within roots of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) were tested for their presymbiotic effects on two arbuscular mcorrhizal fungi, Glomus intraradices UT126 and Glomus clarum BR152B). These endophytic bacteria were also tested for antagonistic effects on Ganoderma boninense PER 71, a white wood rot fungal pathogen that causes a serious disease in oil palm. Spore germination and hyphal length of each arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal (AMF) pairing with endophytic bacteria was found to be significantly higher than spores plated in the absence of bacteria. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed that the endophytic bacteria were scattered, resting or embedded on the surface hyaline layer or on the degraded walls of AMF spores, possibly feeding on the outer hyaline spore wall. The antagonistic effect of the endophytic bacteria was expressed as severe morphological abnormalities in the hyphal structures of G. boninense PER 71. The effects of the endophytic bacteria on G. boninense PER 71 hyphal structures were observed clearly under SEM. Severe inter-twisting, distortion, lysis and shriveling of the hyphal structures were observed. This study found that the effect of endophytic bacteria on G. intraradices UT126 and G. clarum BR152B resembled that of a mycorrhiza helper bacteria (MHB) association because the association significantly promoted AMF spore germination and hyphal length. However, the endophytic bacteria were extremely damaging to G. boninense PER 71.
Naturally occurring seedlings of Neuwiedia veratrifolia were found in three localities in Sabah, Borneo, Malaysia. Seedlings consisted of an irregular oblong protocorm and a terminal leafy rooted shoot. Protocorms contained mycotrophic tissue of the kind typical of orchid mycorrhiza (tolypophagy). This finding demonstrates an important synapomorphy between Neuwiedia and other orchids and strongly supports the monophyly of Orchidaceae in the broad sense, including apostasiod orchids.
Partitioning of soil phosphorus (P) pools has been proposed as a key mechanism maintaining plant diversity, but experimental support is lacking. Here, we provided different chemical forms of P to 15 tree species with contrasting root symbiotic relationships to investigate plant P acquisition in both tropical and subtropical forests. Both ectomycorrhizal (ECM) and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) trees responded positively to addition of inorganic P, but strikingly, ECM trees acquired more P from a complex organic form (phytic acid). Most ECM tree species and all AM tree species also showed some capacity to take up simple organic P (monophosphate). Mycorrhizal colonisation was negatively correlated with soil extractable P concentration, suggesting that mycorrhizal fungi may regulate organic P acquisition among tree species. Our results support the hypothesis that ECM and AM plants partition soil P sources, which may play an ecologically important role in promoting species coexistence in tropical and subtropical forests.
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) actively colonize plant roots and thus enhance plant growth through different mechanisms. In the present study, trifoliate orange (Poncirus trifoliata) seedlings inoculated with Diversispora versiformis were subjected to 0 and 0.2 mmol/L sodium nitroprusside (SNP, a nitric oxide donor) treatments. After eight weeks, exogenous SNP considerably increased root mycorrhizal colonization by 25%, showing a positive stimulating effect of NO on mycorrhizal formation. Mycorrhizal inoculation significantly increased plant growth performance (height, stem diameter, leaf number and shoot and root dry weight) and root traits (length, projected area, surface area, volume and number of 2nd and 3rd order lateral roots) than non-mycorrhizal treatment and NO (exogenous SNP treatment) heavily strengthened the mycorrhizal effects. Moreover, NO and mycorrhization induced more fine root (0-0.5 cm) formation. There was an opposite changed trend in root sucrose and leaf and root glucose contents by SNP in AMF versus non-AMF seedlings. All these results implied that NO plays important roles in mycorrhizal formation and development and also accelerates mycorrhizal effects on plant growth and root development of trifoliate orange.
One mechanism proposed to explain high species diversity in tropical systems is strong negative conspecific density dependence (CDD), which reduces recruitment of juveniles in proximity to conspecific adult plants. Although evidence shows that plant-specific soil pathogens can drive negative CDD, trees also form key mutualisms with mycorrhizal fungi, which may counteract these effects. Across 43 large-scale forest plots worldwide, we tested whether ectomycorrhizal tree species exhibit weaker negative CDD than arbuscular mycorrhizal tree species. We further tested for conmycorrhizal density dependence (CMDD) to test for benefit from shared mutualists. We found that the strength of CDD varies systematically with mycorrhizal type, with ectomycorrhizal tree species exhibiting higher sapling densities with increasing adult densities than arbuscular mycorrhizal tree species. Moreover, we found evidence of positive CMDD for tree species of both mycorrhizal types. Collectively, these findings indicate that mycorrhizal interactions likely play a foundational role in global forest diversity patterns and structure.
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and ectomycorrhizal fungi (EMF) produce contrasting plant-soil feedbacks, but how these feedbacks are constrained by lithology is poorly understood. We investigated the hypothesis that lithological drivers of soil fertility filter plant resource economic strategies in ways that influence the relative fitness of trees with AMF or EMF symbioses in a Bornean rain forest containing species with both mycorrhizal strategies. Using forest inventory data on 1245 tree species, we found that although AMF-hosting trees had greater relative dominance on all soil types, with declining lithological soil fertility EMF-hosting trees became more dominant. Data on 13 leaf traits and wood density for a total of 150 species showed that variation was almost always associated with soil type, whereas for six leaf traits (structural properties; carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus ratios, nitrogen isotopes), variation was also associated with mycorrhizal strategy. EMF-hosting species had slower leaf economics than AMF-hosts, demonstrating the central role of mycorrhizal symbiosis in plant resource economies. At the global scale, climate has been shown to shape forest mycorrhizal composition, but here we show that in communities it depends on soil lithology, suggesting scale-dependent abiotic factors influence feedbacks underlying the relative fitness of different mycorrhizal strategies.
In 1994 Corner published five new species within the genus Psathyrella, all having been collected on the Malay Peninsula between 1929 and 1930. Three of these species belong to the genus Hebeloma and with their vinaceous colored lamellae and spore print, when fresh, they belong to H. sect. Porphyrospora. Of these three species, only one, P. flavidifolia, was validly published and thus we herewith recombine it as H. flavidifolium. The other two species, P. splendens and P. verrucispora, are synonyms of H. parvisporum and H. lactariolens, respectively. We also describe a new Malayan species, H. radicans, which also belongs to H. sect. Porphyrospora. These findings confirm the western Pacific Rim as a diversity hotspot for H. sect. Porphyrospora. The records described within this paper, represent the first recognition that the genus Hebeloma, and indeed that members of the ectomycorrhizal Hymenogastraceae, are present on the Malay Peninsula.
Basal stem rot is one of the major diseases of oil palm (Elaies guineensis Jacq.) caused by pathogenic Ganoderma species. Trichoderma and mycorrhizae were proposed to be able to reduce the disease severity. However, their roles in improving oil palm defence system by possibly inducing defence-related genes in the host are not well characterized. To better understand that, transcript profiles of eleven putative defence-related cDNAs in the roots of oil palm inoculated with Trichoderma harzianum T32 and mycorrhizae at different time points were studied. Transcripts encoding putative Bowman-Birk protease inhibitor (EgBBI2) and defensin (EgDFS) increased more than 2 fold in mycorrhizae-treated roots at 6 weeks post inoculation (wpi) compared to those in controls. Transcripts encoding putative dehydrin (EgDHN), glycine-rich RNA binding protein (EgGRRBP), isoflavone reductase (EgIFR), type 2 ribosome inactivating protein (EgT2RIP), and EgDFS increased in the oil palm roots treated with T. harzianum at 6 and/or 12 wpi compared to those in the controls. Some of these genes were also expressed in oil palm roots treated with Ganoderma boninense. This study provides an insight of some defence-related genes induced by Trichoderma and mycorrhizae, and their roles as potential agents to boost the plant defence system.
The mycoheterotrophic lifestyle has enabled some plant lineages to obtain carbon from their mycorrhizal symbionts. The mycoheterotrophic genus Epirixanthes (Polygalaceae) consists of six species from tropical Asia. Although it is probably closely related to the chlorophyllous genus Salomonia and linked to arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, lack of DNA sequence data has thus far prevented these hypotheses from being tested. Therefore, the evolutionary history of Epirixanthes remains largely unknown.
The association of arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi (AMF) and roots undoubtedly
gives positive advantages to the host plant. However, heavily fertilised soil such as in oil
palm plantation, inhibit the growth of mycorrhiza. Thus, the aim of this research is to
distinguish and quantify the availability of AMF population and propagules at different sites
of an oil palm plantation by Most Probable Number (MPN) assay. In addition, root infection
method was employed to observe host compatibility through the propagation of AMF using
two different types of hosts, monocotyledon (Echinochloa cruss-galli) and dicotyledon
(Vigna radiata). Three different locations at an oil palm plantation were chosen for
sampling. Each location was represented by a distinctive soil series, and were further
divided into two sites, that is canopy and midway area. Midway site had a greater
population of AMF compared to canopy. The result showed that different environments
affect the availability of AMF in the soil. Higher number of AMF infection observed in
monocotyledon host suggests that the fibrous root system provide a better association
with mycorrhiza.
Mycorrhizal fungi are an essential component to consider for better management of soil fertility, particularly in
degraded rangelands of drylands. The present article presents a field survey of colonization and intensity of arbuscular
mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) on prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) roots from young (5 years old) and old (more than 20
years) plantations. The results observed were explained by seasonality and edaphic factors. Prickly pear roots showed
a mycorrhizal frequency (F%) up to 100% of colonization and a mycorrhizal intensity (M%) that may exceed 70%.
According to ANOVAs, both F% and M% varied significantly between Prickly pear plantation ages, but only M% between
seasons. The Generalized linear model showed that edaphic factors have no effect on the variation of F%. However
the statistical model showed that M% were significantly influenced by active CaCO3
, organic matter, carbon, nitrogen,
phosphorus contents and C/N. Our findings highlight the importance of mycorrhization in rehabilitation programs of
degraded rangelands by prickly pear plantations in semiarid and arid lands, particularly during early plant ages and
under environmental abiotic stresses such as climate and soil type.
Mycorrhiza, a mutualistic association between fungi and higher plants, has been documented extensively, but much less is known about the development of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi and their effects on the growth of peanuts (Arachis hypogea L.). Therefore, the mycorrhizal status of Glomus spp. was investigated in the following diverse substrate soil conditions: non-autoclaved soil, autoclaved soil and autoclaved soil plus soil microbiota. The results indicated that both the arbuscular mycorrhizae, Glomus mosseae (Nicol. & Gerd.) Gerd. & Trappe, and Glomus fasciculatum (Thaxter) Gerd. & Trappe emend. Walker & Koske were infective to peanut, but displayed a differential impact on peanut growth depending on the microbial biomass content of the substrate soils. G. mosseae proved to be the most effective at improving peanut growth.
In Southeast Asia, primary tropical rainforests are usually dominated by ectomycorrhizal (ECM) trees belonging to Dipterocarpaceae, although arbuscular mycorrhizal trees often outcompete them after disturbances such as forest fires and clear-cutting, thus preventing dipterocarp regeneration. In some secondary tropical forests, however, potentially ECM trees belonging to Tristaniopsis (Myrtaceae) become dominant and may help ECM dipterocarp forests to recover. However, we have no information about their mycorrhizal status in these settings. In this study, we analyzed ECM fungal communities in tropical secondary forests dominated by Tristaniopsis and investigated which ECM fungal species are shared with other tropical or temperate areas. In total, 100 samples were collected from four secondary forests dominated by Tristaniopsis on Bangka Island. ECM tips in the soil samples were subjected to molecular analyses to identify both ECM and host species. Based on a >97% ITS sequence similarity threshold, we identified 56 ECM fungal species dominated by Thelephoraceae, Russulaceae, and Clavulinaceae. Some of the ECM fungal species were shared between dominant Tristaniopsis and coexisting Eucalyptus or Quercus trees, including 5 common to ECM fungi recorded in a primary mixed dipterocarp forest at Lambir Hill, Malaysia. In contrast, no ECM fungal species were shared with other geographical regions, even with Tristaniopsis in New Caledonia. These results imply that secondary tropical forests dominated by Tristaniopsis harbor diverse ECM fungi, including those that inhabit primary dipterocarp forests in the same geographical region. They may function as refugia for ECM fungi, given that dipterocarp forests are disappearing quickly due to human activity.
This study's primary purpose was to investigate the possible amelioration of limited irrigation conditions by mycorrhiza (AMF), vermicompost, and green manure for lingrain plants. This experiment was accomplished as a factorial based on the completely randomized design with three replications. The first factor was green manure (without green manure and with Trifolium pratense as green manure); the second factor consisted of Rhizophagus irregularis mycorrhiza, vermicompost, a combination of mycorrhiza and vermicompost and none of them, and also the third factor was irrigation regime (full irrigation and late-season water limitation). Green manure, vermicompost, and mycorrhiza single-use enhanced the plant's underwater limitation conditions compared to the control. However, vermicompost and green manure or mycorrhiza developed a positive synergistic effect on most traits. Combining green manure with the dual fertilizer (mycorrhiza + vermicompost) resulted in the vermicompost and mycorrhiza synergistic effects, especially under limited irrigation. Consequently, the combination of green manure, mycorrhiza, and vermicompost experienced the highest amount of leaf relative water content, root colonization, leaf nitrogen, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, carotenoids, antioxidant enzymes activity, grain yield, and oil yield, which would lead to more resistance of plants to limited irrigation conditions.
The distribution patterns of tropical ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi along altitudinal gradients remain largely unknown. Furthermore, despite being an iconic site for biodiversity research, virtually nothing is known about the diversity and spatial patterns of fungi on Mt Kinabalu and neighbouring mountain ranges. We carried out deep DNA sequencing of soil samples collected between 425 and 4000 m above sea level to compare richness and community composition of ECM fungi among altitudinal forest types in Borneo. In addition, we tested whether the observed patterns are driven by habitat or by geometric effect of overlapping ranges of species (mid-domain effect). Community composition of ECM fungi was strongly correlated with elevation. In most genera, richness peaked in the mid-elevation montane forest zone, with the exception of tomentelloid fungi, which showed monotonal decrease in richness with increasing altitude. Richness in lower-mid- and mid-elevations was significantly greater than predicted under the mid-domain effect model. We provide the first insight into the composition of ECM fungal communities and their strong altitudinal turnover in Borneo. The high richness and restricted distribution of many ECM fungi in the montane forests suggest that mid-elevation peak richness is primarily driven by environmental characteristics of this habitat and not by the mid-domain effect.
For decades Malaysia was the world's largest producer of Sn, but now the vast open cast mining operations have left a legacy of some 100,000 ha of what is effectively wasteland, covered with a mosaic of tailings and lagoons. Few plants naturally recolonise these areas. The demand for such land for both urban expansion and agricultural use has presented an urgent need for better characterisation. This study reports on the formation of artificial soils from alluvial Sn mining waste with a focus on the effects of experimental treatments on soil chemistry. Soil organic matter, clay, and pH were manipulated in a controlled environment. Adding both clay tailings and peat enhanced the cation exchange capacity of sand tailings but also reduced the pH. The addition of peat reduced the extractable levels of some elements but increased the availability of Ca and Mg, thus proving beneficial. The use of clay tailings increased the levels of macro and micronutrients but also released Al, As, La, Pb and U. Additionally, the effects of soil mix and mycorrhizal treatments on growth and foliar chemistry were studied. Two plant species were selected: Panicum milicaeum and Pueraria phaseoloides. Different growth patterns were observed with respect to the additions of peat and clay. The results for mycorrhizal treatment (live inoculum or sterile carrier medium) are more complex, but both resulted in improved growth. The use of mycorrhizal fungi could greatly enhance rehabilitation efforts on sand tailings.
Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) and ectomycorrhizal (EcM) associations are critical for host-tree performance. However, how mycorrhizal associations correlate with the latitudinal tree beta-diversity remains untested. Using a global dataset of 45 forest plots representing 2,804,270 trees across 3840 species, we test how AM and EcM trees contribute to total beta-diversity and its components (turnover and nestedness) of all trees. We find AM rather than EcM trees predominantly contribute to decreasing total beta-diversity and turnover and increasing nestedness with increasing latitude, probably because wide distributions of EcM trees do not generate strong compositional differences among localities. Environmental variables, especially temperature and precipitation, are strongly correlated with beta-diversity patterns for both AM trees and all trees rather than EcM trees. Results support our hypotheses that latitudinal beta-diversity patterns and environmental effects on these patterns are highly dependent on mycorrhizal types. Our findings highlight the importance of AM-dominated forests for conserving global forest biodiversity.
How the composition of the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungal community affects plant traits of different plant species in karst environments is poorly understood. Broussonetia papyrifera (a woody shrub) and Bidens pilosa (a herbaceous plant) growing in pots in limestone soil were inoculated with an AM fungus, either Funneliformis mosseae (FM), Diversispora versiformis (DV) or Glomus diaphanum (GD) or with an inoculum mixture of all three AM fungi (bn). B. papyrifera and B. pilosa seedlings inoculated with AM fungi showed a significant increase in biomass and nitrogen and phosphorus acquisition compared with the controls, which lacked mycorrhiza. Mixed fungal inoculations significantly enhanced biomass and nitrogen and phosphorus acquisition by B. papyrifera seedlings compared with single fungal inoculations. Nitrogen and phosphorus acquisition by B. papyrifera mycorrhizal seedlings was significantly greater than that of B. pilosa mycorrhizal seedlings. Fungal composition significantly influenced the mycorrhizal benefits of biomass and phosphorus acquisition and mixed fungal inoculations enhanced nitrogen acquisition. Plant species significantly affected nitrogen acquisition but did not have an effect on biomass and phosphorus benefits. We concluded that AM fungal associations increased plant growth and nutrient absorption and that in general a mixed inoculation of AM fungi enhanced biomass and nutrient acquisition more than a single AM fungal inoculation. In addition, a mycorrhizal association was more beneficial for B. papyrifera seedlings in terms of biomass and nutrient acquisition than for B. pilosa seedlings.
The effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in combination with endophytic bacteria (EB) in reducing development of basal stem rot (BSR) disease in oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) was investigated. BSR caused by Ganoderma boninense leads to devastating economic loss and the oil palm industry is struggling to control the disease. The application of two AMF with two EB as biocontrol agents was assessed in the nursery and subsequently, repeated in the field using bait seedlings. Seedlings pre-inoculated with a combination of Glomus intraradices UT126, Glomus clarum BR152B and Pseudomonas aeruginosa UPMP3 significantly reduced disease development measured as the area under disease progression curve (AUDPC) and the epidemic rate (R L) of disease in the nursery. A 20-month field trial using similar treatments evaluated disease development in bait seedlings based on the rotting area/advancement assessed in cross-sections of the seedling base. Data show that application of Glomus intraradices UT126 singly reduced disease development of BSR, but that combination of the two AMF with P. aeruginosa UPMP3 significantly improved biocontrol efficacy in both nursery and fields reducing BSR disease to 57 and 80%, respectively. The successful use of bait seedlings in the natural environment to study BSR development represents a promising alternative to nursery trial testing in the field with shorter temporal assessment.