Exposure to traffic related air pollution (TRAP) is a public health concern particularly in children, who are one of the most susceptible groups of the population. Children are more vulnerable to such exposure by virtue of their increased susceptibility and the higher doses received. The materials for this review was obtained from several online databas- es; PubMed, Proquest, Scopus, Springerlink and Science Direct (year 1990 to 2018). In this review, we emphasized several relevant studies on respiratory health effects among children living in the proximity to heavy traffic area and focus on the factors, which contributed to the severity of the health outcomes. Short term TRAP exposure reduces lung function, increases respiratory symptoms and incidence of asthma and allergic diseases especially for those who living within 75 m from the heavy traffic area. Preventive measures must be taken in order to protect children from exposure to traffic air pollutants.
Waste and by-products form palm oil trees are versatile and can be used as biomass fuel, but the processes of producing electricity by using low pressure boilers are causing air pollution. The objective of this study is to determine the association between PM10 and PM2.5 exposure with respiratory symptoms and lung function among children living near to palm oil mill. A cross- Sectional comparative study was carried out among school children at Dengkil and Kerling. Questionnaires adopted from ATS-DLD-78-C were distributed to the respondents’ parents. PM10 and PM2.5 was measured. Lung function of the respondents was evaluated by using Chest Graph Spirometer; results were compared with standards of lung function, by ATS (1991). There was a significant difference for Mean±SD PM10 and PM2.5 in studied and comparative area, (p
The production of ammonia has been increasing over the past few years. Unfortunately, the production does not follow the safety control of ammonia on workers. Indonesia still adopts chemical standard from other countries. Therefore, it requires an ammonia standard at the highest dose without effect or no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) in the workplace. This research aims to determine standard at the highest dose of without effect through the expression of CD8 cells as well as analysis of histological alteration CD8 lymphocyte between exposed to ammonia group and control. Methods: The study was a laboratory experimental research with a post-test only control group design. The research used Rattus novergicus species as many as 24. NOAEL was determined by middle dose with a location between the smallest and the largest dose. The doses of ammonia were given through inhalation. The histological alteration of CD8 between ammonia in exposed and the control group were analyzed by using the Kruskal Wallis test. Results: NOAEL was found through CD8 located in group 3 with 0.0154 dose mg/kg body weight. There was a differential expression of CD8 lymphocyte cells in the white mice lung between exposed to ammonia group and control (p=0.042). Conclusion: The expression of CD8 lymphocyte cells in the white mice lung exposed to ammonia differs significantly with the number of the expression of CD8 lymphocyte cells in white mice lung at control group. NOAEL was 0.0154 mg/kg body weight of white mice.
Introduction: Exposure of PM2.5 and PM10 released from combustion of biomass activity caused respiratory health among children. Objective: This study aims to determine the association between exposure of PM2.5 and PM10 with DNA damage in primary school children living nearby palm oil combustion activity at Semenyih. Methods: A cross sectional comparative study were conducted among Malay primary school children in school A located 2.7km from palm oil activity (N=82) and school B located about 40km away from the palm oil area (N=85). A standardized ques- tionnaire were distributed to respondent’s parents. Concentrations of PM2.5 and PM10 were measured by using Dust Trak DRX Aerosol Monitor Model 8534 and Escort LC Personal Sampling Pump. Measurement of indoor and outdoor air pollutants were conducted in schools and home. Buccal cells were collected, which then followed by micronu- cleus assay. Results: Concentration of PM10 and PM2.5 at home of studied group were significantly higher compared to comparative group with p value (p=0.007) and (p=0.018) respectively. PM10 and PM2.5 of studied schools were significantly higher compared to comparative schools with p value (p=0.014) and (p=0.04) respectively. MN fre- quencies of studied group were significantly higher compared to comparative group (p=0.001). Significant difference of respiratory symptoms were found between two groups which are cough, phlegm, wheezing and chest tightness (p=0.001). There were significant correlation between PM10 with MN frequency of studied group and comparative group with r= 0.562; p=0.001. Conclusion: This study indicated that the exposure of PM10 and PM2.5 would increase the risk of having respiratory health symptoms and might induce the micronuclei formation among children who lived near palm oil activity area.
Introduction: School environment represents an important microenvironment for students who spend 6-8 hours in classrooms. Indoor air quality is linked to several respiratory diseases in the school age group. This research aims to study indoor air quality of schools at different environmental characteristic and assess its health risks to students. Methods: This research measured air quality (PM2.5, PM10, CO2 , and HCHO) in three junior high schools and followed by health risk assessment. Results: This research found that the mean or median level of indoor PM2.5 and PM10 in all three schools exceeded the standard value with health risks (HQ> 1) for PM2.5 in all three schools and PM10 in two schools. Whereas carbon dioxide and formaldehyde concentrations were still safe and did not inflict health risks (HQ < 1). The scenario for managing the health risk of PM2.5 and PM10 exposure was to control the exposure at a safe threshold of PM2.5 0.035 mg/m3 ; 0.043 mg/m3 and PM10 0.144 mg/m3 for most of the population at normal school time. Conclusion: It was concluded that the level of indoor particulate matters indicates poor indoor air quality in all three schools at different environmental characteristic and inflicts health risk on students so that the health risk management is required.
Benzene has been measured in indoor environments for many decades and has been identified to cause variety of health effects. Children spend most of their time indoors such as daycare centre, preschool and school, they are more likely to be exposed to indoor air pollutants. This paper was aimed to review the exposure to benzene among children within indoor environments from worldwide studies from 2003 to 2018. Based on 24 papers evaluated, 54% were conducted in primary schools. The highest concentration of benzene was found in preschools in China at 148.0 µg/m3. The benzene levels were found higher in indoors than outdoors for most of the studies. Active sampling techniques were used in 42% of studies that enable the determination of acute health effects on children during short-period of exposure time. Differences in sampling techniques and durations make it hard to compare the outcomes of the studies with health-effect guidelines. This review indicated a diversity of sampling approaches and techniques, pointing to the importance of establishment of standard method for collecting and reporting data.
Introduction: Children spend most of the time indoors and make them easily exposed to indoor air contaminants. Exposure to poor indoor air quality has led to various health problem especially, respiratory-related illness. This study is intended to determine the relationship between indoor air pollutants exposure and the airway inflammation among children aged 5 to 6 years old in selected preschools from mid-2015 until mid-2016. Methods: Four hours of indoor air quality assessment had been conducted at six preschools in Puchong district (urban area) and six preschools in Hulu Langat district (suburban area) of Selangor. The respiratory inflammation among 120 healthy preschool chil- dren had been assessed using non-invasive biomarker of Fractional Exhale Nitric Oxide (FeNO). Meanwhile, respi- ratory symptoms and information on possible residential air pollutant exposures were obtained from a standardized questionnaire. Results: The indoor air quality measurement demonstrated significant high concentration air pollut- ants (PM0.1, PM2.5, PM10, VOCs) at the preschools in the urban as compared to preschools in the suburban area(p < 0.05). Besides, PM2.5 was found to be significantly associated with respiratory inflammation (FeNO value) measured (p
Cr0ss»sectional studies on lung functions of 100 smokers and 100 non-smokers was conducted among a university student population. The objectives of the studies were to determine the correlation between the lung functions with smoking frequency and duration among smokers as well as to compare the lung functions with non-smokers. The smokers’ mean age was 20.74 years, their smoking initiation age was 16.18 years, the smoking duration was 4.41 years and the smoking frequency was 8.72 cigarettes per day. Among smokers, signqicant inverse correlation was shown between FEV] predicted and the smoking frequency (number of cigarette per day) (ri-0.241, p=0.016). Multiple regression confirmed the relationship between FEV]% predicted with respondent’s age (p=0.013) and smoking frequency (p=0.002), FVC% predicted with age (p=0.005) and smoking frequency (p=0.009). The FEV;/FVC% predicted was signyicantly related to phlegm symptoms (p=0.03), while the FEFZ5.y5% predicted was signdicantly related to age (p=0.005), height (p=0.043) and smoking duration (p=0.046). The lung functions (FEV1% predicted, FVC% predicted and FEV]/FVC% predicted ) for smokers were not statistically dyferent from non-smokers. This study showed that the lung functions for the smokers were still quite normal due to their short smoking duration, their low number of cigarette smoked per day and their young age.
Exposure to traffic air pollutant have shown a significant health effect on respiratory systems and decreased in lung function among traffic policemen. The main objective of this study was to determine the relationships between personal exposure levels to PM2.5 and respiratory health among traffic policemen working at Traffic Police Station in Kuala Lumpur and general duty policemen attached to Police Headquarters, Bukit Aman. A cross sectional comparative study was conducted among 50 traffic policemen from Traffic Police Station Kuala Lumpur and 50 general duty policemen from Police Headquarters Bukit Aman as comparative group. A purposive sampling method was used to select the respondents based on inclusive criteria such as age between 25 to 60 years, no history of respiratory disease and working not less than 3 years as traffic policemen. Questionnaire based on ATS (1978) was used to collect information on socio-demographic and respiratory symptoms. Spirometer (Spirolab II Model) was used to perform lung function tests. Personal Air Sampling Pump (Aircheck 52) was used to measure personal exposure level to PM2.5. The mean exposure level of PM2.5 among the traffic policemen was 22.33 ± 8.54μg/m³ compared to only 5.60 ± 4.29μg/m³ for comparative group. There was a significant difference in all lung function parameters between the exposed group and comparative group.From the finding, it shows that there was significant relationship between working duration (years) and lung function parameters among both exposed and comparative group. The result from this research shows that traffic policemen were determined as having lower lung function parameters due to their nature of work and the environment. Also, there was a significant association between exposure to fine particle (PM2.5) and lung function among the exposed group. Finding from this study indicated that exposure to elevated concentration level to traffic related air pollutant was the risk factors in the development of respiratory diseases as shown by the higher prevalence of respiratory symptoms and the reduction in lung function among traffic policemen.
Cement industry contributes to the major constituent of airborne dust in the atmosphere. This study aims to determine the level of respirable cement dust exposure associated with workers’ respiratory health. A cross-sectional study was carried out among 84 administration workers as the comparative group and 84 manufacturing workers as the exposed group. Method: A set of validated questionnaires was used to obtain some pertained background information as well as respiratory symptoms among the respondents. Personal Air Sampling Pump was used for assessing personal exposure towards cement dust in 8 hours. For lung function performance, a Spirometry test was carried out and Fractional Exhaled Nitric Oxide (FENO) test was conducted to assess airway inflammation. Results: The median for personal exposure level to respirable dust of manufacturing workers was 2.68 (5.90) mg/m3 with range 0.351 to 10.60 mg/m3. The lung function abnormality among the manufacturing workers was FVC% (PR=3.82, 95% CI=1.52-9.58) and FEV1% (PR=5.16, 95% CI=1.65-16.10). Cough was reported to occur the most likely among the manufacturing workers (PR=2.40, 95% CI=1.12-5.15). After adjusting the smoking status, the prevalence of phlegm and cough were 35.7% and 29.8% respectively. 16.7% of manufacturing workers recorded a high level of FENO. The increasing exposure to respirable dust significantly reduces the FVC% of manufacturing workers (r=-0.36, p=0.05). Conclusion: The personal exposure to respirable cement dust increases the risk of lung impairment by highly developing respiratory health symptoms, reducing lung function level and increasing the higher level of airway inflammation among highly exposed workers.
Air pollutants that possessed genotoxic properties have the potential to induce genetic damage. Micronuclei (MN) frequency is used as an indicator for identifying potential genotoxic exposures. A comparative cross-sectional study was carried out among primary school children in a petrochemical industrial area (N=111, Kemaman) and a rural (N=65, Dungun) area in Terengganu. Methods: Validated questionnaires were distributed to obtain the respondents’ socio-demographic data, previous exposure and reported respiratory illness. The frequency of micronuclei was assessed in collected buccal mucosa samples of children. The air monitoring was also carried out at 6 selected schools. Results: Results from the statistical analysis carried out showed significant differences with p=0.001 for all parameters assessed between areas, which included ultrafine particles, UFP (z = -4.842), PM2.5 (z = -10.392), PM10 (z= -11.074) NO2 (z = -11.868), SO2 (z = -5.667), relative humidity (z = -5.587). The MN frequency was statistically significant with PM2.5 (χ2= 17.78, p=0.001) and PM10 (χ2= 15.429, p =0.001). The statistical analysis also showed a significant association between UFP and coughing (PR=2.965, 95% CI=1.069-8.225). The multiple logistic regression analysis showed that the main pollutants influencing MN frequencies were UFP and NO2 with UFP (PR=1.877, 95%CI= 1.174-3.002) and NO2 (PR=1.008, 95%CI= 1.001-1.015). Conclusion: This study demonstrated that exposure to air pollutants may increase the risk of respiratory illness and may induce MN formation among children.
This study aimed to identify the exposure levels of traffic air pollutants specifically PM10, benzene, toluene, and xylene (BTX) among traffic policemen and the risks to their respiratory health. A cross-sectional comparative study was conducted among 42 traffic policemen and 42 desk-bound policemen as the exposed and comparative groups respectively. Methods: The questionnaire adapted from the American Thoracic Society for Adult Respiratory Health Disease (ATS-DLD) to obtain socio-demographic and respiratory symptoms data. A spirometer (Chestgraph Hi-105) was used to perform lung function test. A personal air sampling pump was used to measure the personal exposure level to PM10. A Ppbrae 3000 was used to measure the outdoor and indoor concentration of BTX during morning and afternoon peak hours respectively. Results: The mean personal exposure level of PM10 among the traffic policemen was 150.14 ± 130.66 μg/m3 compared to only 84.14 ± 94.11 μg/m3 in the comparative group. The short exposures to BTX at the roadsides were found to be slightly higher in the afternoons than in the mornings. Indoor offices air concentrations were only detectable for benzene while the mornings and afternoons values for toluene and xylene were below the detection limits. A median concentration of benzene documented significantly higher at the selected of sampling roadsides areas (median=0.157 ppm) than indoor office areas (median=0.071 ppm). Conclusion: The respiratory symptoms were significantly higher in the exposed group compared to the comparative group which they were 3.9, 4.1, and 3.5 times more likely to develop cough, wheezing, and breathlessness respectively.
Exposure to PM2.5 from traffic-related air pollution (TRAP) can cause health risk among residents in the urban area. Those who work outdoors are vulnerable to TRAP. PM2.5 from TRAP contain various carcinogenic and mutagenic compounds that can cause genotoxicity to human health. This study indicated that exposure to the higher level of PM2.5 in the urban areas had exhibited an increased in the formation of micronucleus (MN) among respondents. Traf- fic policemen experienced a high concentration of PM2.5 that lead to higher MN frequency compared to the office workers.
To achieve rapid economic development, many countries including Malaysia resort various activities to exploit nat- ural sources such as mining. As a consequence, mining are an important economic activity which has the potential to contribute to the development of areas endowed with the ore. Studies have been carried out in countries where the impact were on the environment and health. However, fewer studies have been carried out on the effects of min- ing on health especially the children. This paper provides a review of the process description, properties of bauxite, bauxite production and the potential health effects of heavy metals from mining ores on children’s health. The aims of this article are to evaluate the most frequently reported effect towards health and heavy metals levels in biomark- ers such as blood, urine, hair and toenail among children mining areas. Respiratory problems were most commonly reported effects associated with mining activities. Heavy metals such as lead, aluminum, chromium, nickel are also elevated from normal levels due to mining activities. Specific mitigated measures need to be taken in order to solve the problems and protect the public health especially children as they are vulnerable and represent the non-occupa- tionally exposed population.
Introduction: Female workers have different abilities and physiology to male workers. Thus, female workers are very sensitive to some hazards in workplace environment. The existing hazards in work environment can cause various effects towards pregnancy among female workers. The objective of this study was to analyze the influence of work factors including shift work, work attitude, and work duration on reproductive health. Methods: The study was a cross-sectional study. The number of research sample was 109 female workers selected by simple random sampling. The respondents were female workers in plastic and soft drink industry in Sidoarjo. Primary data was col- lected by using questionnaires. The dependent variable was the reproductive health of female workers. Reproductive health status of female workers includes menstrual disorders and pregnancy disorders. The independent variables included work pattern, work duration, and shift work. Results: The percentage of respondents who were married was 81.7%. The percentage of respondents experiencing reproductive disorders was 63.3% in which 60.6% cases were menstrual disorders and 20.2% cases were pregnancy disorders. The results of logistic regression test showed that reproductive health during pregnancy was affected by shift work (p=0.007). Conclusion: Female workers who worked in the evening and at night shift had high risks of pregnancy disorders and miscarriage than female workers who worked at normal working hours. Working in shifts and the irregular working hours also associated with the miscarriage occurence. Companies need to provide protection for pregnant workers in order to avoid irregular shift work and evening or night shift.
A study on 30 asthmatic children was conducted in Kuala Lumpur. The objective of this study was to study the relationship between respirable particulate (PM10), sulphur dioxide, ozone and various meteorological factors such as humidity, level ofrainfall and temperature with asthma attacks. This study was conducted from 1st September to 31 December 1994. Patients were selected from the Paediatric Unit, Kuala Lumpur Hospital. Questionnaires were used to obtain information from their parents on the history and severity ofasthmatic attacks ofthese patients. Questionnaires were also used to determine if the indoor sources contributed to the attack. Diary cards were used to collect information on the frequency of asthmatic attacks. Each patient's progress was followed through every week during the study period and the attacks were recorded. The data on air quality on the PM10, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide and ozone were collected hourly using the microcomputer system of air monitoring unit from the Universiti Pertanian Malaysia air quality monitoring station located at the City Hall, Kuala Lumpur. The meteorological parameters such as temperature, relative humidity and rain-fall levels were also monitored daily. The asthmatic attack percentage was obtained by dividing the number of attacks in a day with the total number of sample and multiplying by a hundred. Statistical tests indicated that there was a significant correlation between asthmatic attacks and the PM10 concentrations (r=0.73), nitrogen dioxide (r=0.57) and.carbon monoxide (r=0.53) throughout the study period. During the haze episode, more significant correlations between asthmatic attacks, PM10 concentra-tions (0.86), carbon monoxide (0.79) and nitrogen oxide (0.53) were found. Multiple regression statistical test showed that PM10 had the greatest influence on the asthmatic attack rate. The minute respirable particulate which entered the respiratory system of the asthmatics triggered attacks on these patients.
Exposure to industrial air pollutants is a public health concern particularly in children due to their immaturity of respiratory systems. The distance between their school and home from the industrial area will elevate the risk of airway inflammation among children. This study aims to determine the exposure of Industrial Air Pollutants (PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, and VOCs) and its association with airway inflammation (FeNO) among primary school children in industrial and non- industrial areas in Kemaman, Terengganu. A cross-sectional comparative study was conducted among Malay primary school children in Kemaman, Terengganu. A validated questionnaire was randomly distributed to children to get the background information, respiratory symptoms and exposure history of the children. The assessment of indoor air quality was carried out in each primary school and home using indoor air monitoring equipment. Fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO) was measured using an NIOX MINO device. The results showed a significant difference between concentrations of PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, and VOCs in different classrooms from selected schools and homes of exposed and comparative groups, P
Introduction: Good indoor air quality (IAQ) is important for workers’ well-being whilst simultaneously optimize work productivity and job performance of the workers in an office. This study aims to determine the association between the sick building syndrome (SBS) in relation to the personal factors, indoor office environment and indoor air pollutants at an academic institution in Malaysia. Methods: A total of 342 office workers; made up of 188 (55%) female and 154 male (45%), from 14 different office buildings; made up of administrative, faculties, centers, institutes and school, participated in this study. A self-administered questionnaire was used to determine symptoms related to SBS. Real time readings of IAQ parameters were conducted three times daily for 15 minutes /sampling point. Results: Results showed higher prevalence of the SBS symptoms generally among women; diagnosed asthma was positively associated with mucosal symptoms; current smoking was significantly associated with skin symptoms; and centralized air conditioning system, the use of photocopiers, printers or fax machines for more than 1 hour per day and installation of a new carpet in the office environment were significant risk factors of SBS. After adjusting for de- mographic characteristics, formaldehyde, ultrafine particle and total volatile organic compounds were significantly associated with mucosal symptoms. Conclusion: Demographic characteristics, indoor office environment and indoor air pollutants were significant risk factors of SBS among workers in this study. It is highly recommended to maintain good housekeeping and to isolate printers and photocopier machines from the main workplace since both were sources of particulates.
There was considerable evidence that a subject's psychological status may influence respiratory sensations and that some subjects may experience respiratory symptoms regardless of the presence of a respiratory disease. The objective of this study was to determine the association between occupational stress and respiratory symptoms among lecturers. This cross sectional study was conducted in Universiti Putra Malaysia, involved 61 lecturers from various faculties. Job Content Questionnaire (JCQ) and questionnaires based on American Thoracic Society were used to collect the data on socio-demography, stress level and respiratory symptoms. High level of occupational stress (high strain) was determined among 16 of the respondents (26.2%). Breathlessness was the common symptom experienced by the respondents. Female lecturers were significantly experienced high stress level compared to male (p=0.035). They were also significantly having more breathlessness symptom compared to male lecturer (p=0.011). Study highlighted in study population, gender plays a significant role that influenced level of occupational stress and also gender has role in resulting occupational stress level and respiratory symptoms. There was no significant association between occupational stress and respiratory symptoms. It can be concluded that this group of lecturers of Universiti Putra Malaysia did not experienced high occupational stress level. Occupational stress level was not statistically significantly associated with all respiratory symptoms being studied.
In the last few years, air within homes have been indicates by various and emerging body as more serious polluted than those outdoor. Prevalence of respiratory inflammation among school children aged 8 and 10 years old attending national primary schools in urban and rural area were conducted in Klang Valley. Two population studies drawn from the questionnaires were used to investigate the association between indoor particulate matter (PM2.5 & PM10) in a home environment and respiratory implication through the understanding of biological responses. Approximately 430 healthy school children of Standard 2 and Standard 5 were selected. Indication of respiratory symptoms using adaptation questionnaire from American Thoracic Society (1978). Sputum sample collection taken for biological analysis. IL-6 then was analyse by using ELISA techniques. Indoor PM2.5 and PM10 were measured using Dust Trak Aerosol Monitor. The mean concentration of PM2.5 (45.38 µg/m3) and PM10 (80.07 µg/m3) in urban home environment is significantly higher compared to those in rural residential area (p=0.001). Similar trend also shows by the prevalence of respiratory symptom. Association were found with PM2.5 and PM10 with the level of IL-6 among school children. A greater exposure to PM2.5 and PM10 are associated with higher expression of IL-6 level suggesting that the concentration of indoor particulate in urban density area significantly influence the health of children.