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  1. Computer aided diagnosis of diabetic foot using infrared thermography: A review
    Adam M, Ng EYK, Tan JH, Heng ML, Tong JWK, Acharya UR
    Comput Biol Med, 2017 12 01;91:326-336.
    PMID: 29121540 DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2017.10.030
    Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic metabolic disorder that requires regular medical care to prevent severe complications. The elevated blood glucose level affects the eyes, blood vessels, nerves, heart, and kidneys after the onset. The affected blood vessels (usually due to atherosclerosis) may lead to insufficient blood circulation particularly in the lower extremities and nerve damage (neuropathy), which can result in serious foot complications. Hence, an early detection and treatment can prevent foot complications such as ulcerations and amputations. Clinicians often assess the diabetic foot for sensory deficits with clinical tools, and the resulting foot severity is often manually evaluated. The infrared thermography is a fast, nonintrusive and non-contact method which allows the visualization of foot plantar temperature distribution. Several studies have proposed infrared thermography-based computer aided diagnosis (CAD) methods for diabetic foot. Among them, the asymmetric temperature analysis method is more superior, as it is easy to implement, and yielded satisfactory results in most of the studies. In this paper, the diabetic foot, its pathophysiology, conventional assessments methods, infrared thermography and the different infrared thermography-based CAD analysis methods are reviewed.
    Matched MeSH terms: Thermography/methods*
  2. Fulltext FLIR vs SEEK thermal cameras in biomedicine: comparative diagnosis through infrared thermography
    Kirimtat A, Krejcar O, Selamat A, Herrera-Viedma E
    BMC Bioinformatics, 2020 Mar 11;21(Suppl 2):88.
    PMID: 32164529 DOI: 10.1186/s12859-020-3355-7
    BACKGROUND: In biomedicine, infrared thermography is the most promising technique among other conventional methods for revealing the differences in skin temperature, resulting from the irregular temperature dispersion, which is the significant signaling of diseases and disorders in human body. Given the process of detecting emitted thermal radiation of human body temperature by infrared imaging, we, in this study, present the current utility of thermal camera models namely FLIR and SEEK in biomedical applications as an extension of our previous article.

    RESULTS: The most significant result is the differences between image qualities of the thermograms captured by thermal camera models. In other words, the image quality of the thermal images in FLIR One is higher than SEEK Compact PRO. However, the thermal images of FLIR One are noisier than SEEK Compact PRO since the thermal resolution of FLIR One is 160 × 120 while it is 320 × 240 in SEEK Compact PRO.

    CONCLUSION: Detecting and revealing the inhomogeneous temperature distribution on the injured toe of the subject, we, in this paper, analyzed the imaging results of two different smartphone-based thermal camera models by making comparison among various thermograms. Utilizing the feasibility of the proposed method for faster and comparative diagnosis in biomedical problems is the main contribution of this study.

    Matched MeSH terms: Thermography/instrumentation; Thermography/methods*
  3. Non-obstructive monitoring of muscle fatigue for low intensity dynamic exercise with infrared thermography technique
    Shakhih MFM, Ridzuan N, Wahab AA, Zainuddin NF, Delestri LFU, Rosslan AS, et al.
    Med Biol Eng Comput, 2021 Aug;59(7-8):1447-1459.
    PMID: 34156602 DOI: 10.1007/s11517-021-02387-x
    Surface electromyography (sEMG) has been widely used in evaluating muscle fatigue among athletes where electrodes are attached on the skin during the activity. Recently, infrared thermography technique (IRT) has gain popularity and shown to be another preferred method in monitoring and predicting muscle fatigue non-obstructively. This paper investigates the correlation between surface temperature and muscle activation parameters obtained using both IRT and sEMG methods simultaneously. Twenty healthy subjects were required to perform a repetitive calf raise exercise with various loads attached around their ankle for 3 min to induce fatigue on the targeted gastrocnemius muscles. Average temperature and temperature difference information were extracted from thermal images, while root mean square (RMS) and median frequency (MF) were extracted from sEMG signals. Spearman statistical analysis performed shows that there is a significant correlation between average temperature with RMS and between temperature difference with MF values at p<0.05. While ANOVA test conducted shows that there is significant impact of loads on RMS and MF where F=12.61 and 3.59, respectively, at p< 0.05. This study suggested that skin surface temperature can be utilized in monitoring and predicting muscle fatigue in low intensity dynamic exercise and can be extended to other dynamic exercises.
    Matched MeSH terms: Thermography*
  4. A comparative evaluation of thermal camera and visual counting methods for primate census in a riparian forest at the Lower Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary (LKWS), Malaysian Borneo
    Jumail A, Liew TS, Salgado-Lynn M, Fornace KM, Stark DJ
    Primates, 2021 Jan;62(1):143-151.
    PMID: 32572697 DOI: 10.1007/s10329-020-00837-y
    A number of primate census techniques have been developed over the past half-century, each of which have advantages and disadvantages in terms of resources required by researchers (e.g., time and costs), availability of technologies, and effectiveness in different habitat types. This study aims to explore the effectiveness of a thermal imaging technique to estimate the group size of different primate species populations in a degraded riparian forest in the Lower Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary (LKWS), Sabah. We compared this survey technique to the conventional visual counting method along the riverbank. For 38 days, a total of 138 primate groups were observed by thermal camera and visually throughout the study. Optimal conditions for the thermal camera were clear weather, not more than 100 m distance from the observer to the targeted area, boat speed ranging between 5 and 12 km/h, and early morning between 04:30 and 05:30 am. The limitations of the thermal cameras include the inability to identify individual species, sexes, age classes, and also to discern between animals closely aggregated (i.e., mothers with attached infants). Despite these limitations with the thermal camera technique, 1.78 times more primates were detected than counting by eye (p 
    Matched MeSH terms: Thermography/methods; Thermography/veterinary*
  5. Microwave ovens: mapping the electrical field distribution
    Ng KH
    Med Lab Sci, 1991 Jul;48(3):189-92.
    PMID: 1787775
    Uniformity of electric field intensity of microwaves within the microwave oven cavity is necessary to ensure even load-heating, and is particularly important in pathology procedures where small volume irradiation is carried out. A simple and rapid method for mapping electric field distribution, using reversible thermographic paint, is described. Spatial heating patterns for various positions, and the effects of introducing dummy loads to modify heating distributions, have been obtained for a dedicated microwave processor, and comparison made with a domestic microwave oven.
    Matched MeSH terms: Thermography
  6. Thermal distribution analysis of three-dimensional tumor-embedded breast models with different breast density compositions
    Wahab AA, Salim MI, Ahamat MA, Manaf NA, Yunus J, Lai KW
    Med Biol Eng Comput, 2016 Sep;54(9):1363-73.
    PMID: 26463520 DOI: 10.1007/s11517-015-1403-7
    Breast cancer is the most common cancer among women globally, and the number of young women diagnosed with this disease is gradually increasing over the years. Mammography is the current gold-standard technique although it is known to be less sensitive in detecting tumors in woman with dense breast tissue. Detecting an early-stage tumor in young women is very crucial for better survival chance and treatment. The thermography technique has the capability to provide an additional functional information on physiological changes to mammography by describing thermal and vascular properties of the tissues. Studies on breast thermography have been carried out to improve the accuracy level of the thermography technique in various perspectives. However, the limitation of gathering women affected by cancer in different age groups had necessitated this comprehensive study which is aimed to investigate the effect of different density levels on the surface temperature distribution profile of the breast models. These models, namely extremely dense (ED), heterogeneously dense (HD), scattered fibroglandular (SF), and predominantly fatty (PF), with embedded tumors were developed using the finite element method. A conventional Pennes' bioheat model was used to perform the numerical simulation on different case studies, and the results obtained were then compared using a hypothesis statistical analysis method to the reference breast model developed previously. The results obtained show that ED, SF, and PF breast models had significant mean differences in surface temperature profile with a p value <0.025, while HD breast model data pair agreed with the null hypothesis formulated due to the comparable tissue composition percentage to the reference model. The findings suggested that various breast density levels should be considered as a contributing factor to the surface thermal distribution profile alteration in both breast cancer detection and analysis when using the thermography technique.
    Matched MeSH terms: Thermography/methods*
  7. Fulltext Breast Cancer Detection Using Infrared Thermal Imaging and a Deep Learning Model
    Mambou SJ, Maresova P, Krejcar O, Selamat A, Kuca K
    Sensors (Basel), 2018 Aug 25;18(9).
    PMID: 30149621 DOI: 10.3390/s18092799
    Women's breasts are susceptible to developing cancer; this is supported by a recent study from 2016 showing that 2.8 million women worldwide had already been diagnosed with breast cancer that year. The medical care of a patient with breast cancer is costly and, given the cost and value of the preservation of the health of the citizen, the prevention of breast cancer has become a priority in public health. Over the past 20 years several techniques have been proposed for this purpose, such as mammography, which is frequently used for breast cancer diagnosis. However, false positives of mammography can occur in which the patient is diagnosed positive by another technique. Additionally, the potential side effects of using mammography may encourage patients and physicians to look for other diagnostic techniques. Our review of the literature first explored infrared digital imaging, which assumes that a basic thermal comparison between a healthy breast and a breast with cancer always shows an increase in thermal activity in the precancerous tissues and the areas surrounding developing breast cancer. Furthermore, through our research, we realized that a Computer-Aided Diagnostic (CAD) undertaken through infrared image processing could not be achieved without a model such as the well-known hemispheric model. The novel contribution of this paper is the production of a comparative study of several breast cancer detection techniques using powerful computer vision techniques and deep learning models.
    Matched MeSH terms: Thermography*
  8. Fulltext Experimental data on the properties of pelletization of palm kernel shell using sago starch and sodium acetate
    Halim SA, Razali N, Mohd N
    Data Brief, 2020 Dec;33:106535.
    PMID: 34026955 DOI: 10.1016/j.dib.2020.106535
    Pellet mixed with 5 wt% and 10 wt% of binders was tested. The pelleting process was performed using a pellet mill operated at 100 °C and at 50 MPa. The physical and chemical characteristics including hardness, high heating value and proximate analysis of pellet produces were obtained using durometer and through thermographic analysis and the results were reported in this paper. Bulk and unit density were determined according to ASABE standard. The dataset presented here are the data of palm kernel shell pellet prepared using two types of binder; (1) sago starch and (2) sodium acetate. The pelletization of palm kernel shell aimed to increase the density and strength of the palm kernel shell pellet and consequently provide better thermal degradation characteristics.
    Matched MeSH terms: Thermography
  9. Fulltext A machine learning model for early detection of diabetic foot using thermogram images
    Khandakar A, Chowdhury MEH, Ibne Reaz MB, Md Ali SH, Hasan MA, Kiranyaz S, et al.
    Comput Biol Med, 2021 10;137:104838.
    PMID: 34534794 DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2021.104838
    Diabetes foot ulceration (DFU) and amputation are a cause of significant morbidity. The prevention of DFU may be achieved by the identification of patients at risk of DFU and the institution of preventative measures through education and offloading. Several studies have reported that thermogram images may help to detect an increase in plantar temperature prior to DFU. However, the distribution of plantar temperature may be heterogeneous, making it difficult to quantify and utilize to predict outcomes. We have compared a machine learning-based scoring technique with feature selection and optimization techniques and learning classifiers to several state-of-the-art Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) on foot thermogram images and propose a robust solution to identify the diabetic foot. A comparatively shallow CNN model, MobilenetV2 achieved an F1 score of ∼95% for a two-feet thermogram image-based classification and the AdaBoost Classifier used 10 features and achieved an F1 score of 97%. A comparison of the inference time for the best-performing networks confirmed that the proposed algorithm can be deployed as a smartphone application to allow the user to monitor the progression of the DFU in a home setting.
    Matched MeSH terms: Thermography
  10. Activity analysis of thermal imaging videos using a difference imaging approach
    Tattersall GJ, Danner RM, Chaves JA, Levesque DL
    J Therm Biol, 2020 Jul;91:102611.
    PMID: 32716861 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2020.102611
    Infrared thermal imaging is a passive imaging technique that captures the emitted radiation from an object to estimate surface temperature, often for inference of heat transfer. Infrared thermal imaging offers the potential to detect movement without the challenges of glare, shadows, or changes in lighting associated with visual digital imaging or active infrared imaging. In this paper, we employ a frame subtraction algorithm for extracting the pixel-by-pixel relative change in signal from a fixed focus video file, tailored for use with thermal imaging videos. By summing the absolute differences across an entire video, we are able to assign quantitative activity assessments to thermal imaging data for comparison with simultaneous recordings of metabolic rates. We tested the accuracy and limits of this approach by analyzing movement of a metronome and provide an example application of the approach to a study of Darwin's finches. In principle, this "Difference Imaging Thermography" (DIT) would allow for activity data to be standardized to energetic measurements and could be applied to any radiometric imaging system.
    Matched MeSH terms: Thermography/methods*; Thermography/standards
  11. A comparison between infrared tympanic thermometry, oral and axilla with rectal thermometry in neutropenic adults
    Dzarr AA, Kamal M, Baba AA
    Eur J Oncol Nurs, 2009 Sep;13(4):250-4.
    PMID: 19386547 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejon.2009.03.006
    This study assessed the agreement between infrared tympanic membrane (TM), axillary, corrected axillary (+0.5 degrees C), oral, and corrected oral (+0.3 degrees C) to rectal thermometry as reference standard in neutropenic adults. The sensitivity and specificity of the mentioned thermometries in detecting rectal fever (> or =38 degrees C) were also analysed.
    Matched MeSH terms: Thermography/instrumentation; Thermography/methods*; Thermography/nursing; Thermography/standards
  12. A new thermographic NDT for condition monitoring of electrical components using ANN with confidence level analysis
    Huda AS, Taib S, Ghazali KH, Jadin MS
    ISA Trans, 2014 May;53(3):717-24.
    PMID: 24593986 DOI: 10.1016/j.isatra.2014.02.003
    Infrared thermography technology is one of the most effective non-destructive testing techniques for predictive faults diagnosis of electrical components. Faults in electrical system show overheating of components which is a common indicator of poor connection, overloading, load imbalance or any defect. Thermographic inspection is employed for finding such heat related problems before eventual failure of the system. However, an automatic diagnostic system based on artificial neural network reduces operating time, human efforts and also increases the reliability of system. In the present study, statistical features and artificial neural network (ANN) with confidence level analysis are utilized for inspection of electrical components and their thermal conditions are classified into two classes namely normal and overheated. All the features extracted from images do not produce good performance. Features having low performance reduce the diagnostic performance. The study reveals the performance of each feature individually for selecting the suitable feature set. In order to find the individual feature performance, each feature of thermal image was used as input for neural network and the classification of condition types were used as output target. The multilayered perceptron network using Levenberg-Marquardt training algorithm was used as classifier. The performances were determined in terms of percentage of accuracy, specificity, sensitivity, false positive and false negative. After selecting the suitable features, the study introduces the intelligent diagnosis system using suitable features as inputs of neural network. Finally, confidence percentage and confidence level were used to find out the strength of the network outputs for condition monitoring. The experimental result shows that multilayered perceptron network produced 79.4% of testing accuracy with 43.60%, 12.60%, 21.40, 9.20% and 13.40% highest, high, moderate, low and lowest confidence level respectively.
    Matched MeSH terms: Thermography
  13. Fulltext High Thermal Gradient in Thermo-electrochemical Cells by Insertion of a Poly(Vinylidene Fluoride) Membrane
    Hasan SW, Said SM, Sabri MF, Bakar AS, Hashim NA, Hasnan MM, et al.
    Sci Rep, 2016 07 06;6:29328.
    PMID: 27381946 DOI: 10.1038/srep29328
    Thermo-Electrochemical cells (Thermocells/TECs) transform thermal energy into electricity by means of electrochemical potential disequilibrium between electrodes induced by a temperature gradient (ΔT). Heat conduction across the terminals of the cell is one of the primary reasons for device inefficiency. Herein, we embed Poly(Vinylidene Fluoride) (PVDF) membrane in thermocells to mitigate the heat transfer effects - we refer to these membrane-thermocells as MTECs. At a ΔT of 12 K, an improvement in the open circuit voltage (Voc) of the TEC from 1.3 mV to 2.8 mV is obtained by employment of the membrane. The PVDF membrane is employed at three different locations between the electrodes i.e. x = 2 mm, 5 mm, and 8 mm where 'x' defines the distance between the cathode and PVDF membrane. We found that the membrane position at x = 5 mm achieves the closest internal ∆T (i.e. 8.8 K) to the externally applied ΔT of 10 K and corresponding power density is 254 nWcm(-2); 78% higher than the conventional TEC. Finally, a thermal resistivity model based on infrared thermography explains mass and heat transfer within the thermocells.
    Matched MeSH terms: Thermography
  14. Localization of burn mark under an abnormal topography on MOSFET chip surface using liquid crystal and emission microscopy tools
    Lau CK, Sim KS, Tso CP
    Scanning, 2011 Jan-Feb;33(1):13-20.
    PMID: 21462221 DOI: 10.1002/sca.20216
    This article focuses on the localization of burn mark in MOSFET and the scanning electron microscope (SEM) inspection on the defect location. When a suspect abnormal topography is shown on the die surface, further methods to pin-point the defect location is necessary. Fault localization analysis becomes important because an abnormal spot on the chip surface may and may not have a defect underneath it. The chip surface topography can change due to the catastrophic damage occurred at layers under the chip surface, but it could also be due to inconsistency during metal deposition in the wafer fabrication process. Two localization techniques, liquid crystal thermography and emission microscopy, were performed to confirm that the abnormal topography spot is the actual defect location. The tiny burn mark was surfaced by performing a surface decoration at the defect location using hot hydrochloric acid. SEM imaging, which has the high magnification and three-dimensional capabilities, was used to capture the images of the burn mark.
    Matched MeSH terms: Thermography
  15. Fulltext Thermal profiling Analysis for Asymmetrically Embedded Tumour with Different Breast Densities
    Laila Fadhillah Ulta Delestri, Kenshiro Ito, Gan Hong Seng, Muhammad Faiz Md Shakhih, Asnida Abdul Wahab
    Malaysian Journal of Medicine and Health Sciences, 2020;16(108):6-12.
    MyJurnal
    Introduction: Detecting breast cancer at earlier stage is crucial to increase the survival rate. Mammography as the golden screening tool has shown to be less effective for younger women due to denser breast tissue. Infrared Ther- mography has been touted as an adjunct modality to mammography. Further investigation of thermal distribution in breast cancer patient is important prior to its clinical interpretation. Therefore, thermal profiling using 3D compu- tational simulation was carried out to understand the effect of changes in size and location of tumour embedded in breast to the surface temperature distribution at different breast densities. Methods: Extremely dense (ED) and pre- dominantly fatty dense (PF) breast models were developed and simulated using finite element analysis (FEA). Pennes’ bioheat equation was adapted to show the heat transfer mechanism by providing appropriate thermophysical prop- erties in each tissue layer. 20 case studies with various tumour size embedded at two asymmetrical positions in the breast models were analysed. Quantitative and qualitative analyses were performed by recording the temperature values along the arc of breast, calculating of temperature difference at the peaks and comparing multiple thermal images. Results: Bigger size of tumour demands a larger increase in breast surface temperatures. As tumour is located far from the centre of the breast or near to the edge, there was a greater shift of temperature peak. Conclusion: Size and location of tumour in various levels of breast density should be considered as a notable factor to thermal profile on breast when using thermography for early breast cancer detection.
    Matched MeSH terms: Thermography
  16. A Brief Review on Breast Carcinoma and Deliberation on Current Non Invasive Imaging Techniques for Detection
    Vairavan R, Abdullah O, Retnasamy PB, Sauli Z, Shahimin MM, Retnasamy V
    Curr Med Imaging Rev, 2019;15(2):85-121.
    PMID: 31975658 DOI: 10.2174/1573405613666170912115617
    BACKGROUND: Breast carcinoma is a life threatening disease that accounts for 25.1% of all carcinoma among women worldwide. Early detection of the disease enhances the chance for survival.

    DISCUSSION: This paper presents comprehensive report on breast carcinoma disease and its modalities available for detection and diagnosis, as it delves into the screening and detection modalities with special focus placed on the non-invasive techniques and its recent advancement work done, as well as a proposal on a novel method for the application of early breast carcinoma detection.

    CONCLUSION: This paper aims to serve as a foundation guidance for the reader to attain bird's eye understanding on breast carcinoma disease and its current non-invasive modalities.

    Matched MeSH terms: Thermography/methods
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