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Fulltext Trend Analysis of Travel Medicine Topics Presented at an International Tropical Medicine Conference

Asawapaithulsert P, Flaherty GT, Piyaphanee W

Am J Trop Med Hyg, 2022 Aug 17;107(2):492-494.
PMID: 35895400 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.22-0177

Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, there was a rapid increase in international travel. Travel medicine is a branch of preventive medicine focusing on risk assessment pre-travel, during travel and post-travel with the aim of promoting health and preventing adverse health outcomes. Travel medicine specialists inform travelers about potential health risks and mitigate infectious disease risks such as travelers' diarrhea, yellow fever, and malaria. Travel medicine topics were popular in the American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene conferences between 2016 and 2020, and now comprise approximately 2% of all presentations. Most topics related to the post-travel assessment (50%), followed by diseases contracted during travel (26%), and pre-travel assessment and consultation (24%). Our analysis of the 10 sub-domains of travel medicine issues found that malaria (26%) and immunization (12%) were represented to the greatest extent. We anticipate that both travel and tropical medicine fields will regain their popularity after recovery from the pandemic.

Matched MeSH terms: Tropical Medicine*
Fulltext Diagnostics and the neglected tropical diseases roadmap: setting the agenda for 2030

Souza AA, Ducker C, Argaw D, King JD, Solomon AW, Biamonte MA, et al.

Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg, 2021 01 28;115(2):129-135.
PMID: 33169166 DOI: 10.1093/trstmh/traa118

Accurate and reliable diagnostic tools are an essential requirement for neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) programmes. However, the NTD community has historically underinvested in the development and improvement of diagnostic tools, potentially undermining the successes achieved over the last 2 decades. Recognizing this, the WHO, in its newly released draft roadmap for NTD 2021-2030, has identified diagnostics as one of four priority areas requiring concerted action to reach the 2030 targets. As a result, WHO established a Diagnostics Technical Advisory Group (DTAG) to serve as the collaborative mechanism to drive progress in this area. Here, the purpose and role of the DTAG are described in the context of the challenges facing NTD programmes.

Matched MeSH terms: Tropical Medicine*
The rise or fall of neglected tropical diseases in East Asia Pacific

Hotez PJ

Acta Trop, 2020 Feb;202:105182.
PMID: 31550453 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2019.105182

While the East Asia Pacific (EAP) region has experienced tremendous economic growth and development, the resulting public health gains from reductions in its neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) have been less than expected due to opposing forces of urbanization, political instability, food insecurity, and climate change, together with co-morbidities with non-communicable diseases, including diabetes and hypertension. To be sure there's been progress towards the elimination of lymphatic filariasis and trachoma through mass drug administration, and there are opportunities to extend MDA to yaws and scabies, but for most of the other NTDs we'll require new biotechnologies. So far, EAP's major technology hubs in China, Japan, Malaysia, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan have mostly failed to shift their attention towards new innovations for the NTDs, including new drugs, diagnostics, and vaccines, and vector control. Unless this situation changes the EAP could be facing a new grim reality of unhealthy megacities beset by emerging arbovirus infections, widespread antimicrobial resistance, and urban helminth infections.

Matched MeSH terms: Tropical Medicine*
Fulltext Anti-Wolbachia therapy for onchocerciasis & lymphatic filariasis: Current perspectives

Wan Sulaiman WA, Kamtchum-Tatuene J, Mohamed MH, Ramachandran V, Ching SM, Sazlly Lim SM, et al.

Indian J Med Res, 2019 06;149(6):706-714.
PMID: 31496523 DOI: 10.4103/ijmr.IJMR_454_17

Onchocerciasis and lymphatic filariasis (LF) are human filarial diseases belonging to the group of neglected tropical diseases, leading to permanent and long-term disability in infected individuals in the endemic countries such as Africa and India. Microfilaricidal drugs such as ivermectin and albendazole have been used as the standard therapy in filariasis, although their efficacy in eliminating the diseases is not fully established. Anti-Wolbachia therapy employs antibiotics and is a promising approach showing potent macrofilaricidal activity and also prevents embryogenesis. This has translated to clinical benefits resulting in successful eradication of microfilarial burden, thus averting the risk of adverse events from target species as well as those due to co-infection with loiasis. Doxycycline shows potential as an anti-Wolbachia treatment, leading to the death of adult parasitic worms. It is readily available, cheap and safe to use in adult non-pregnant patients. Besides doxycycline, several other potential antibiotics are also being investigated for the treatment of LF and onchocerciasis. This review aims to discuss and summarise recent developments in the use of anti-Wolbachia drugs to treat onchocerciasis and LF.

Matched MeSH terms: Tropical Medicine
Sepsis in tropical regions: Report from the task force on tropical diseases by the World Federation of Societies of Intensive and Critical Care Medicine

McGloughlin S, Richards GA, Nor MBM, Prayag S, Baker T, Amin P

J Crit Care, 2018 08;46:115-118.
PMID: 29310974 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2017.12.018

Sepsis and septic shock in the tropics are caused by a wide array of organisms. These infections are encountered mainly in low and middle-income countries (LMIC) where a lack of infrastructure and medical facilities contribute to the high morbidity and mortality. Published sepsis guidelines are based on studies primarily performed in high income countries and as such recommendations may or may not be relevant to practice in the tropics. Failure to adhere to guidelines, particularly among non-intensive care specialists even in high-income countries, is an area of concern for sepsis management. Additionally, inappropriate use of antimicrobials has led to significant antimicrobial resistance. Access to rapid, low-cost, and accurate diagnostic tests is critical in countries where tropical diseases are prevalent to facilitate early diagnosis and treatment. Implementation of performance improvement programs may improve outcomes for patients with sepsis and the addition of resuscitation and treatment bundles may further reduce mortality. Associated co-morbidities such as malnutrition and HIV influence outcomes and must be considered.

Matched MeSH terms: Tropical Medicine/organization & administration
Fulltext Collaborate or Collapse: Capacity Building in Zoonotic and Neglected Tropical Disease Modelling

Mohd Zain SN, Basáñez MG

Trends Parasitol, 2018 05;34(5):356-358.
PMID: 29358040 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2017.12.009

We share the insights from a successful collaboration in organizing and implementing an international scientific capacity-building workshop in Malaysia titled Mathematical Modelling of Neglected Infectious Diseases: Capacity Building in Southeast Asia. This workshop focused on the delivery of technical know-how and on essential soft skills related to effective grant proposal writing and networking.

Matched MeSH terms: Tropical Medicine/trends*
Mosquito control with green nanopesticides: towards the One Health approach? A review of non-target effects

Benelli G, Maggi F, Pavela R, Murugan K, Govindarajan M, Vaseeharan B, et al.

Environ Sci Pollut Res Int, 2018 Apr;25(11):10184-10206.
PMID: 28755145 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-017-9752-4

The rapid spread of highly aggressive arboviruses, parasites, and bacteria along with the development of resistance in the pathogens and parasites, as well as in their arthropod vectors, represents a huge challenge in modern parasitology and tropical medicine. Eco-friendly vector control programs are crucial to fight, besides malaria, the spread of dengue, West Nile, chikungunya, and Zika virus, as well as other arboviruses such as St. Louis encephalitis and Japanese encephalitis. However, research efforts on the control of mosquito vectors are experiencing a serious lack of eco-friendly and highly effective pesticides, as well as the limited success of most biocontrol tools currently applied. Most importantly, a cooperative interface between the two disciplines is still lacking. To face this challenge, we have reviewed a wide number of promising results in the field of green-fabricated pesticides tested against mosquito vectors, outlining several examples of synergy with classic biological control tools. The non-target effects of green-fabricated nanopesticides, including acute toxicity, genotoxicity, and impact on behavioral traits of mosquito predators, have been critically discussed. In the final section, we have identified several key challenges at the interface between "green" nanotechnology and classic biological control, which deserve further research attention.

Matched MeSH terms: Tropical Medicine
Intensive care in severe malaria: Report from the task force on tropical diseases by the World Federation of Societies of Intensive and Critical Care Medicine

Karnad DR, Nor MBM, Richards GA, Baker T, Amin P, Council of the World Federation of Societies of Intensive and Critical Care Medicine

J Crit Care, 2018 Feb;43:356-360.
PMID: 29132978 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2017.11.007

Severe malaria is common in tropical countries in Africa, Asia, Oceania and South and Central America. It may also occur in travelers returning from endemic areas. Plasmodium falciparum accounts for most cases, although P vivax is increasingly found to cause severe malaria in Asia. Cerebral malaria is common in children in Africa, manifests as coma and seizures, and has a high morbidity and mortality. In other regions, adults may also develop cerebral malaria but neurological sequelae in survivors are rare. Acute kidney injury, liver dysfunction, thrombocytopenia, disseminated intravascular coagulopathy (DIC) and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) are also common in severe malaria. Metabolic abnormalities include hypoglycemia, hyponatremia and lactic acidosis. Bacterial infection may coexist in patients presenting with shock or ARDS and this along with a high parasite load has a high mortality. Intravenous artesunate has replaced quinine as the antimalarial agent of choice. Critical care management as per severe sepsis is also applicable to severe malaria. Aggressive fluid boluses may not be appropriate in children. Blood transfusions may be required and treatment of seizures and raised intracranial pressure is important in cerebral malaria in children. Mortality in severe disease ranges from 8 to 30% despite treatment.

Matched MeSH terms: Tropical Medicine*
Fulltext Pneumonia in the tropics: Report from the Task Force on tropical diseases by the World Federation of Societies of Intensive and Critical Care Medicine

Nor MBM, Richards GA, McGloughlin S, Amin PR, Council of the World Federation of Societies of Intensive and Critical Care Medicine

J Crit Care, 2017 12;42:360-365.
PMID: 29129538 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2017.11.004

The aetiology of community acquired pneumonia varies according to the region in which it is acquired. This review discusses those causes of CAP that occur in the tropics and might not be readily recognizable when transplanted to other sites. Various forms of pneumonia including the viral causes such as influenza (seasonal and avian varieties), the coronaviruses and the Hantavirus as well as bacterial causes, specifically the pneumonic form of Yersinia pestis and melioidosis are discussed.

Matched MeSH terms: Tropical Medicine
Fulltext Ceiling geometry and daylighting performance of side lit historical museum galleries under tropical overcast sky condition

Sabarinah Sh Ahmad, Noraini Ahmad, Anuar Talib

Pertanika Journal of Science & Technology, 2017;25(107):287-298.
MyJurnal

Safe level of daylighting for artefact conservation in historic buildings is a difficult task to achieve. Previous studies indicated that lighting problems in historic museum galleries were mainly due to unshaded walls that allowed direct sun penetration over the display areas. Ceiling geometry can also affect the daylighting performance significantly, particularly on the interior distribution of light. Malaysia, with hot and humid climate, and tropical sky conditions receives plenty of natural light all year around. The fluxes in natural lighting exposures confirm the need for strategic daylight control programme in the exhibition gallery. The study aims to assess the ceiling geometry contribution for four orientations; North, East, South and West through computer simulations. The research approach was based on comparisons between pitched and flat ceiling simulation output data. Further comparisons were performed with the recommended lighting limits for conservation of artefacts. The comparisons allowed better understanding of light damage issues and highlight the control of daylighting distributions through realistic predictive images and ceiling geometry designs. The results showed that the types of exhibits materials and its placement are affected by the ceiling geometry and constant changes in natural lighting exposure. The study confirms that ceiling geometry can act as a control mechanism with the environment physical features as part of preventive conservation criteria in the exhibition gallery. Thus, a systematic light-monitoring programme in the exhibition gallery is necessary to control illuminance level and cumulative exposure limits, for artefact preservation.

Matched MeSH terms: Tropical Medicine
Low and declining attack rates of imported typhoid fever in the Netherlands 1997-2014, in spite of a restricted vaccination policy

Suryapranata FS, Prins M, Sonder GJ

BMC Infect Dis, 2016 12 01;16(1):731.
PMID: 27905890

BACKGROUND: Typhoid fever mainly occurs in (sub) tropical regions where sanitary conditions remain poor. In other regions it occurs mainly among returning travelers or their direct contacts. The aim of this study was to evaluate the current Dutch guidelines for typhoid vaccination.
METHOD: Crude annual attack rates (AR) per 100,000 Dutch travelers were calculated during the period 1997 to 2014 by dividing the number of typhoid fever cases by the estimated total number of travelers to a specific country or region. Regions of exposure and possible risk factors were evaluated.
RESULTS: During the study period 607 cases of typhoid fever were reported. Most cases were imported from Asia (60%). Almost half of the cases were ethnically related to typhoid risk regions and 37% were cases visiting friends and relatives. The overall ARs for travelers to all regions declined significantly. Countries with the highest ARs were India (29 per 100,000), Indonesia (8 per 100,000), and Morocco (10 per 100,000). There was a significant decline in ARs among travelers to popular travel destinations such as Morocco, Turkey, and Indonesia. ARs among travelers to intermediate-risk areas according to the Dutch guidelines such as Latin America or Sub-Saharan Africa remained very low, despite the restricted vaccination policy for these areas compared to many other guidelines.
CONCLUSION: The overall AR of typhoid fever among travelers returning to the Netherlands is very low and has declined in the past 20 years. The Dutch vaccination policy not to vaccinate short-term travelers to Latin-America, Sub-Saharan Africa, Thailand and Malaysia seems to be justified, because the ARs for these destinations remain very low. These results suggest that further restriction of the Dutch vaccination policy is justified.

Matched MeSH terms: Tropical Medicine
Fulltext Neglected tropical diseases among the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN): overview and update

Hotez PJ, Bottazzi ME, Strych U, Chang LY, Lim YA, Goodenow MM, et al.

PLoS Negl Trop Dis, 2015 Apr;9(4):e0003575.
PMID: 25880767 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003575

The ten member states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) constitute an economic powerhouse, yet these countries also harbor a mostly hidden burden of poverty and neglected tropical diseases (NTDs). Almost 200 million people live in extreme poverty in ASEAN countries, mostly in the low or lower middle-income countries of Indonesia, the Philippines, Myanmar, Viet Nam, and Cambodia, and many of them are affected by at least one NTD. However, NTDs are prevalent even among upper middle-income ASEAN countries such as Malaysia and Thailand, especially among the indigenous populations. The three major intestinal helminth infections are the most common NTDs; each helminthiasis is associated with approximately 100 million infections in the region. In addition, more than 10 million people suffer from either liver or intestinal fluke infections, as well as schistosomiasis and lymphatic filariasis (LF). Intestinal protozoan infections are widespread, while leishmaniasis has emerged in Thailand, and zoonotic malaria (Plasmodium knowlesi infection) causes severe morbidity in Malaysia. Melioidosis has emerged as an important bacterial NTD, as have selected rickettsial infections, and leptospirosis. Leprosy, yaws, and trachoma are still endemic in focal areas. Almost 70 million cases of dengue fever occur annually in ASEAN countries, such that this arboviral infection is now one of the most common and economically important NTDs in the region. A number of other arboviral and zoonotic viral infections have also emerged, including Japanese encephalitis; tick-borne viral infections; Nipah virus, a zoonosis present in fruit bats; and enterovirus 71 infection. There are urgent needs to expand surveillance activities in ASEAN countries, as well as to ensure mass drug administration is provided to populations at risk for intestinal helminth and fluke infections, LF, trachoma, and yaws. An ASEAN Network for Drugs, Diagnostics, Vaccines, and Traditional Medicines Innovation provides a policy framework for the development of new control and elimination tools. Together with prominent research institutions and universities, the World Health Organization (WHO), and its regional offices, these organizations could implement important public health improvements through NTD control and elimination in the coming decade.

Matched MeSH terms: Tropical Medicine*
Fulltext The application of biomedical engineering techniques to the diagnosis and management of tropical diseases: a review

Ibrahim F, Thio TH, Faisal T, Neuman M

Sensors (Basel), 2015 Mar 23;15(3):6947-95.
PMID: 25806872 DOI: 10.3390/s150306947

This paper reviews a number of biomedical engineering approaches to help aid in the detection and treatment of tropical diseases such as dengue, malaria, cholera, schistosomiasis, lymphatic filariasis, ebola, leprosy, leishmaniasis, and American trypanosomiasis (Chagas). Many different forms of non-invasive approaches such as ultrasound, echocardiography and electrocardiography, bioelectrical impedance, optical detection, simplified and rapid serological tests such as lab-on-chip and micro-/nano-fluidic platforms and medical support systems such as artificial intelligence clinical support systems are discussed. The paper also reviewed the novel clinical diagnosis and management systems using artificial intelligence and bioelectrical impedance techniques for dengue clinical applications.

Matched MeSH terms: Tropical Medicine/instrumentation*
Fulltext Cinnamon: a multifaceted medicinal plant

Rao PV, Gan SH

Evid Based Complement Alternat Med, 2014;2014:642942.
PMID: 24817901 DOI: 10.1155/2014/642942

Cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum, and Cinnamon cassia), the eternal tree of tropical medicine, belongs to the Lauraceae family. Cinnamon is one of the most important spices used daily by people all over the world. Cinnamon primarily contains vital oils and other derivatives, such as cinnamaldehyde, cinnamic acid, and cinnamate. In addition to being an antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, anticancer, lipid-lowering, and cardiovascular-disease-lowering compound, cinnamon has also been reported to have activities against neurological disorders, such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases. This review illustrates the pharmacological prospective of cinnamon and its use in daily life.

Matched MeSH terms: Tropical Medicine
Fulltext Filariasis of the axilla in a patient returning from travel abroad: a case report

Roethlisberger M, Wuerstlein R, Majores M, Müller-Stöver I, Seitz HM, Rhiem K, et al.

Breast care (Basel, Switzerland), 2012 Dec;7(6):487-9.
PMID: 24715832 DOI: 10.1159/000345471

BACKGROUND: The term filariasis comprises a group of parasitic infections caused by helminths belonging to different genera in the superfamily Filaroidea. The human parasites occur mainly in tropical and subtropical regions, but filariae are also found in temperate climates, where they can infect wild and domestic animals. Humans are rarely infected by these zoonotic parasites.
PATIENTS AND METHODS: A 55-year-old patient presented with a new-onset, subcutaneous, non-tender palpable mass in the right axilla. Ultrasonography showed a 1.3-cm, solid, singular encapsulated node. Sonography of the breast on both sides, axilla and lymphatic drainage on the left side, lymphatic drainage on the right side, and mammography on both sides were without pathological findings. The node was excised under local anesthesia as the patient refused minimal invasive biopsy.
RESULTS: On histopathological examination, the tail of a parasite of the group of filariae was found. The patient revealed that she had stayed in Africa and Malaysia for professional reasons. 6 months before the time of diagnosis, she had also suffered from a fever and poor general condition after a trip abroad. The patient was referred for further treatment to the Institute for Tropical Medicine at the University of Dusseldorf, where a treatment with ivermectin was conducted on the basis of positive staining with antibodies against filariae.
CONCLUSION: Our case demonstrates the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration between breast center, pathology, and other specialties such as microbiology and tropical medicine.

Matched MeSH terms: Tropical Medicine
Fever and rash in a returning traveller

Kumar N, Lewis DJ

BMJ, 2012;344:e2400.
PMID: 22496299 DOI: 10.1136/bmj.e2400
Matched MeSH terms: Tropical Medicine
Fulltext Social sciences research in neglected tropical diseases 1: the ongoing neglect in the neglected tropical diseases

Allotey P, Reidpath DD, Pokhrel S

Health Res Policy Syst, 2010 Oct 21;8:32.
PMID: 20961461 DOI: 10.1186/1478-4505-8-32

Centuries of scientific advances and developments in biomedical sciences have brought us a long way to understanding and managing disease processes, by reducing them to simplified cause-effect models. For most of the infectious diseases known today, we have the methods and technology to identify the causative agent, understand the mechanism by which pathology is induced and develop the treatment (drugs, vaccines, medical or surgical procedures) to cure, manage or control.Disease, however, occurs within a context of lives fraught with complexity. For any given infectious disease, who gets it, when, why, the duration, the severity, the outcome, the sequelae, are bound by a complex interplay of factors related as much to the individual as it is to the physical, social, cultural, political and economic environments. Furthermore each of these factors is in a dynamic state of change, evolving over time as they interact with each other. Simple solutions to infectious diseases are therefore rarely sustainable solutions. Sustainability would require the development of interdisciplinary sciences that allow us to acknowledge, understand and address these complexities as they occur, rather than rely solely on a form of science based on reducing the management of disease to simple paradigms.In this review we examine the current global health responses to the 'neglected' tropical diseases, which have been prioritised on the basis of an acknowledgment of the complexity of the poverty-disease cycle. However research and interventions for neglected tropical diseases, largely neglect the social and ecological contextual, factors that make these diseases persist in the target populations, continuing instead to focus on the simple biomedical interventions. We highlight the gaps in the approaches and explore the potential of enhanced interdisciplinary work in the development of long term solutions to disease control.

Matched MeSH terms: Tropical Medicine
[The relation of the faculty of veterinary medicine with the tropics: from developig assistance-projects to international cooporation 1987-2007]

Paling RW

Argos, 2008.
PMID: 20642142

In the introduction three stages are distinguished in the relation between the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and the tropics: (1) Development of a veterinary infrastructure (research and education) in the former colonies, Netherlands-Indies, Surinam and The Netherlands Antilles (1850 - ca. 1949); (2) Developing Aid Assistance (1965-2000) and (3) Cooperation on the basis of bilateral treaties that express the mutual interests of the two countries involved (1993-today). The Faculty in Utrecht entered into such alliances with sister faculties in Thailand, South-Africa and Malaysia. As a result of internal and external factors the study of tropical veterinary medicine was no longer core business of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Utrecht. Tropical veterinary medicine was incorporated in the Department of Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine. The Office for International Cooperation of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, founded in 1987, partly took over the role of the former institute. Its activities are education and information, research support of the ongoing projects and networking. The accent moved from aid to cooperation for mutual interest.

Matched MeSH terms: Tropical Medicine/history*
Southeast Asian tropical medicine and parasitology network

Waikagul J

Parasitol Int, 2006;55 Suppl:S297-300.
PMID: 16326132

The SEAMEO TROPMED Network is a regional cooperative network established in 1967 for education, training and research in tropical medicine and public health under the Southeast Asia Ministers of Education Organization. The Network operates through four Regional Centers with respective areas of specialization and host institutions: Community Nutrition/Tropmed Indonesia; Microbiology, Parasitology and Entomology/Tropmed Malaysia; Public Health/Tropmed Philippines; and Tropical Medicine/Tropmed Thailand. To train health workers, to support research on endemic and newly emerging diseases, and to advocate relevant health policies are the main functions of these centers. SEAMEO TROPMED Network in collaboration with the Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University and other institutions has regularly organized the Seminar on Food-borne Parasitic Zoonoses every 3-5 years over the past 15 years. The Faculty of Tropical Medicine has organized the annual Joint International Tropical Medicine Meeting since 1996. Full papers of the presentations at these two meetings have been published as supplementary issues to the Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health, an in-house journal of SEAMEO TROPMED Network. Recently, the Parasitology Association of ASEAN Countries has rotated the hosting of the ASEAN Congress of Parasitology and Tropical Medicine. These institutional and conference networks will enable closer links, to promote the health of people in the Southeast Asian region.

Matched MeSH terms: Tropical Medicine/education*
Charles Wilberforce Daniels, FRCP (1862-1927): underrated pioneer of tropical medicine

Cook GC

Acta Trop, 2002 Mar;81(3):237-50.
PMID: 11835901

Charles Wilberforce Daniels was a major pioneer in the early days of the newly-formed medical specialism--tropical medicine. At the London School of Tropical Medicine (LSTM) of which he was a leading stalwart, he took an active part in research, teaching and administration. But like others in the new discipline he spent a great deal of time at various tropical locations: Fiji, British Guiana--where he made important observations on various forms of filariasis-- east Africa, and Malaya. However, his most important research contribution was arguably confirmation of Ronald Ross' 1898 discovery of the complete life-cycle of avian malaria, in Calcutta.

Matched MeSH terms: Tropical Medicine/history*

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