Method: Thirty-five full-length pk41 sequences from clinical isolates of Malaysia along with four laboratory lines (along with H-strain) were downloaded from public databases. For comparative analysis between species, orthologous P41 genes from P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. coatneyi and P. cynomolgi were also downloaded. Genetic diversity, polymorphism, haplotype and natural selection were determined using DnaSP 5.10 software. Phylogenetic relationships between Pk41 genes were determined using MEGA 5.0 software.
Results: Analysis of 39 full-length pk41 sequences along with the H-strain identified 36 SNPs (20 non-synonymous and 16 synonymous substitutions) resulting in 31 haplotypes. Nucleotide diversity across the full-length gene was low and was similar to its ortholog in P. vivax; pv41. Domain-wise amino acid analysis of the two s48/45 domains indicated low level of polymorphisms for both the domains, and the glutamic acid rich region had extensive size variations. In the central domain, upstream to the glutamate rich region, a unique two to six (K-E)n repeat region was identified within the clinical isolates. Overall, the pk41 genes were indicative of negative/purifying selection due to functional constraints. Domain-wise analysis of the s48/45 domains also indicated purifying selection. However, analysis of Tajima's D across the genes identified non-synonymous SNPs in the s48/45 domain II with high positive values indicating possible epitope binding regions. All the 6-cysteine residues within the s48/45 domains were conserved within the clinical isolates indicating functional conservation of these regions. Phylogenetic analysis of full-length pk41 genes indicated geographical clustering and identified three subpopulations of P. knowlesi; one originating in the laboratory lines and two originating from Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo.
Conclusion: This is the first study to report on the polymorphism and natural selection of pk41 genes from clinical isolates of Malaysia. The results reveal that there is low level of polymorphism in both s48/45 domains, indicating that this antigen could be a potential vaccine target. However, genetic and molecular immunology studies involving higher number of samples from various parts of Malaysia would be necessary to validate this antigen's candidacy as a vaccine target for P. knowlesi.
METHODS: Thirty-six full-length pkmsp7D gene sequences (along with the reference H-strain: PKNH_1266000) obtained from clinical isolates of Malaysia, which were orthologous to pvmsp7H (PVX_082680) were downloaded from public databases. Population genetic, evolutionary and phylogenetic analyses were performed to determine the level of genetic diversity, polymorphism, recombination and natural selection.
RESULTS: Analysis of 36 full-length pkmsp7D sequences identified 147 SNPs (91 non-synonymous and 56 synonymous substitutions). Nucleotide diversity across the full-length gene was higher than its ortholog in Plasmodium vivax (msp7H). Region-wise analysis of the gene indicated that the nucleotide diversity at the central region was very high (π = 0.14) compared to the 5' and 3' regions. Most hyper-variable SNPs were detected at the central domain. Multiple test for natural selection indicated the central region was under strong positive natural selection however, the 5' and 3' regions were under negative/purifying selection. Evidence of intragenic recombination were detected at the central region of the gene. Phylogenetic analysis using full-length msp7D genes indicated there was no geographical clustering of parasite population.
CONCLUSIONS: High genetic diversity with hyper-variable SNPs and strong evidence of positive natural selection at the central region of MSP7D indicated exposure of the region to host immune pressure. Negative selection at the 5' and the 3' regions of MSP7D might be because of functional constraints at the unexposed regions during the merozoite invasion process of P. knowlesi. No evidence of geographical clustering among the clinical isolates from Malaysia indicated uniform selection pressure in all populations. These findings highlight the further evaluation of the regions and functional characterization of the protein as a potential blood stage vaccine candidate for P. knowlesi.
METHODS: Forty full-length pktrap sequences from clinical isolates of Malaysia along with the reference H-strain were downloaded from published databases. Genetic diversity, polymorphism, haplotype and natural selection were determined using DnaSP 5.10 software. McDonald-Kreitman test was conducted using P. vivax and Plasmodium coatneyi as ortholog sequence in DnaSP 5.10 software. Population genetic differentiation index (FST) of parasite populations was determined using Arlequin v3.5. Phylogenetic relationships between trap ortholog genes were determined using MEGA 5.0 software.
RESULTS: Comparison of 40 full-length pktrap sequences along with the H-strain identified 74 SNPs (53 non-synonymous and 21 synonymous substitutions) resulting in 29 haplotypes. Analysis of the full-length gene showed that the nucleotide diversity was lower compared to its nearest ortholog pvtrap. Domain-wise analysis indicated that the proline/asparagine rich region had higher nucleotide diversity compared to the von Willebrand factor domain and the thrombospondin-type-1 domain. McDonald-Kreitman test identified that the ratio of the number of nonsynonymous to synonymous polymorphic sites within P. knowlesi was significantly higher than that of the number of nonsynonymous to synonymous fixed sites between P. knowlesi and P. vivax. The von Willebrand factor domain also indicated balancing selection using MK test, however, it did not give significant results when tested with P. coatneyi as an outgroup. Phylogenetic analysis of full-length genes identified three distinct sub-clusters of P. knowlesi, one originating from Peninsular Malaysia and two originating from Malaysian Borneo. High population differentiation values was observed within samples from Peninsular Malaysia and Malaysian Borneo.
CONCLUSIONS: This study is the first to report on the genetic diversity and natural selection of full-length pktrap. Low level of genetic diversity was found across the full-length gene of pktrap. Balancing selection of the von Willebrand factor domain indicated that TRAP could be a target in inducing immune response against P. knowlesi infections. However, higher number of samples would be necessary to further confirm the findings.
METHODS: Eleven full-length pkmsp1 sequences obtained from clinical isolates of Malaysia along with the H-strain were downloaded from the database for domain wise characterization of pkmsp1 gene. Additionally, 76 pkmsp-142 sequences from Thailand and Malaysia were downloaded from the database for intra and inter-population analysis. DnaSP 5.10 and MEGA 5.0 software were used to determine genetic diversity, polymorphism, haplotypes and natural selection. Genealogical relationships were determined using haplotype network tree in NETWORK software v5.0. Population genetic differentiation index (FST) of parasites were analysed using Arlequin v3.5.
RESULTS: Sequence analysis of 11 full-length pkmsp1 sequences along with the H-strain identified 477 (8.4%) polymorphic sites, of which 107 were singleton sites. The overall diversity observed in the full-length genes were high in comparison to its ortholog pvmsp1 and the 4 variable domains showed extensive size variations. The nucleotide diversity was low towards the pkmsp1-42 compared to the conserved domains. The 19 kDa domain was less diverse and completely conserved among isolates from Malaysian Borneo. The nucleotide diversity of isolates from Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand were higher than Malaysian Borneo. Network analysis of pkmsp1-42 haplotypes showed geographical clustering of the isolates from Malaysian Borneo and grouping of isolates from Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand. Population differentiation analysis indicated high FST values between parasite populations originating from Malaysian Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand attributing to geographical distance. Moderate genetic differentiation was observed for parasite populations from Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia. Evidence of population expansion and purifying selection were observed in all conserved domains with strongest selection within the pkmsp1-42 domain.
CONCLUSIONS: This study is the first to report on inter country genetic diversity and population structure of P. knowlesi based on msp1. Strong evidence of negative selection was observed in the 42 kDa domain, indicating functional constrains. Geographical clustering of P. knowlesi and moderate to high genetic differentiation values between populations identified in this study highlights the importance of further evaluation using larger number of clinical samples from Southeast Asian countries.
METHODS: A total of 36 full-length pkmsp1p sequences along with the reference H-strain and 40 C-terminal pkmsp1p sequences from clinical isolates of Malaysia were downloaded from published genomes. Genetic diversity, polymorphism, haplotype and natural selection were determined using DnaSP 5.10 and MEGA 5.0 software. Genealogical relationships were determined using haplotype network tree in NETWORK software v5.0. Population genetic differentiation index (F ST ) and population structure of parasite was determined using Arlequin v3.5 and STRUCTURE v2.3.4 software.
RESULTS: Comparison of 36 full-length pkmsp1p sequences along with the H-strain identified 339 SNPs (175 non-synonymous and 164 synonymous substitutions). The nucleotide diversity across the full-length gene was low compared to its ortholog pvmsp1p. The nucleotide diversity was higher toward the N-terminal domains (pkmsp1p-83 and 30) compared to the C-terminal domains (pkmsp1p-38, 33 and 19). Phylogenetic analysis of full-length genes identified 2 distinct clusters of P. knowlesi from Malaysian Borneo. The 40 pkmsp1p-19 sequences showed low polymorphisms with 16 polymorphisms leading to 18 haplotypes. In total there were 10 synonymous and 6 non-synonymous substitutions and 12 cysteine residues were intact within the two EGF domains. Evidence of strong purifying selection was observed within the full-length sequences as well in all the domains. Shared haplotypes of 40 pkmsp1p-19 were identified within Malaysian Borneo haplotypes.
CONCLUSIONS: This study is the first to report on the genetic diversity and natural selection of pkmsp1p. A low level of genetic diversity and strong evidence of negative selection was detected and observed in all the domains of pkmsp1p of P. knowlesi indicating functional constrains. Shared haplotypes were identified within pkmsp1p-19 highlighting further evaluation using larger number of clinical samples from Malaysia.
METHODS: Mosquitoes found landing on humans and resting on leaves over a 5-day period at two sites in the Lawas District of northern Sarawak were collected and identified. DNA samples extracted from salivary glands of Anopheles mosquitoes were subjected to nested PCR malaria-detection assays. The small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) gene of Plasmodium was sequenced, and the internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) and mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox1) gene of the mosquitoes were sequenced from the Plasmodium-positive samples for phylogenetic analysis.
RESULTS: Totals of 65 anophelines and 127 culicines were collected. By PCR, 6 An. balabacensis and 5 An. donaldi were found to have single P. knowlesi infections while 3 other An. balabacensis had either single, double or triple infections with P. inui, P. fieldi, P. cynomolgi and P. knowlesi. Phylogenetic analysis of the Plasmodium SSU rRNA gene confirmed 3 An. donaldi and 3 An. balabacensis with single P. knowlesi infections, while 3 other An. balabacensis had two or more Plasmodium species of P. inui, P. knowlesi, P. cynomolgi and some species of Plasmodium that could not be conclusively identified. Phylogenies inferred from the ITS2 and/or cox1 sequences of An. balabacensis and An. donaldi indicate that they are genetically indistinguishable from An. balabacensis and An. donaldi, respectively, found in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo.
CONCLUSIONS: Previously An. latens was identified as the vector for P. knowlesi in Kapit, central Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo, and now An. balabacensis and An. donaldi have been incriminated as vectors for zoonotic malaria in Lawas, northern Sarawak.