The productivity of smallholder sheep and goat flocks is constrained by high morbidity and mortality of young stock due to helminthosis and coccidiosis. We hypothesized that gastrointestinal parasites are prevalent and may cause severe infections amongst small ruminants in Malaysia. A cross-sectional survey was conducted between March and December 2019 to investigate the prevalence, risk factors, and levels of infection with gastrointestinal strongyle and coccidia in selected smallholder goat flocks in Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia. A total of 257 blood and fecal samples and management data were collected from four farms in Negeri Sembilan. Gastrointestinal parasites were detected by routine sodium chloride floatation, and the McMaster technique was used to quantify the fecal eggs/oocysts per gram outputs (EPG/OPG). The severity of infection was classified as mild (50-799), moderate (800-1200), or severe (>1200). The packed cell volume (PCV) was determined by microhematocrit centrifugation and classified as anemic or non-anemic. Coprological examination revealed an overall prevalence of 78.6% (CI = 72.74-83.44) and 100% flock level prevalence of strongyle and coccidia infection among goats from Negeri Sembilan with a higher infection in flock A-Lenggeng (95.6%) than B-Senawang (87.3%), D-Mendom (80.6%), or C-Seremban (60.0%). The co-infections of strongyle + Eimeria (50.6; CI = 44.50 to 56.64) were more common than single infections of either strongyle (16.7%; CI = 12.66 to 21.78) or Eimeria (4.3%; CI = 2.41 to 7.50). Quantitative analysis has revealed different (p < 0.05) patterns of EPG/OPG in various categories of goats. In total, there were 49.8% mild, 8.6% moderate, and 13.6% severe infections of strongyle and 40.1% mild, 6.6% moderate, and 19.8% severe infections of coccidia among goats. The mean PCV of goats with severe strongyle infection (24.60 ± 0.85) was significantly (p < 0.05) lower than the moderate (26.90 ± 1.15), or mild (28.23 ± 0.50) infections and the uninfected (30.4 ± 0.71). There were increased odds of infection with strongyle and coccidia among female (OR = 3.2) and adult (OR = 11.0) goats from smallholder flocks in Negeri Sembilan. In conclusion, gastrointestinal strongyles and coccidia occur at high frequency among smallholder goats, and there is a higher risk of infection amongst the adult and female stock.
This paper describes the occurrence of multiple parasitic infection with special reference to emerging haemotropic Mycoplasma ovis. A cross-sectional survey of four selected goat flocks was conducted to collect samples and management information. Blood samples were processed using microhaematocrit centrifugation to determine the packed cell volume (PCV). Detection and morphological identification of blood protozoa and haemotropic Mycoplasma ovis from Giemsa-stained smears were done microscopically. M. ovis infection was classified mild (1-29% infected cells), moderate (30-59% infected cells), or severe (above 60% infected cells). Faecal floatation and McMaster faecal egg count were used to detect and classify strongyle infections as negative (no eggs/oocysts), light (< 500 epg), Moderate (500 - 1000 epg), or severe (>1000 epg) and coccidia infection as light (<1800 opg), moderate (1800 - 6000 opg), or severe (>6000 opg). There were 149 goats with blood protozoa (57.98%; 95% CI: 51.87 - 63.85) and 204 goats with GI parasites (79.38%; 95% CI: 74.02 - 83.87) involved in single (15.8%; 95% CI: 11.7 - 21.0) or multiple (84.2%; 95% CI: 79.0 - 88.3) infections. The risk of Strongyles increases by 2.49 (95% CI: 1.24 - 4.99) in females versus males and 6.79 (95% CI: 3.25 - 14.18, p =0.000) in adults versus young. The risk of Eimeria species increases by 7.32 (95% CI: 3.45 - 15.50, p =0.000) in adults versus young, while M. ovis coinfection risk increases by 4.51 (95% CI: 1.40 - 14.50, p =0.000) in female versus males. Thin animals had a significantly higher (p<0.05) mean burden of Strongyle (1370.37 ± 345.49) and Eimeria (1594.12 ± 695.26) than the moderate and fat goats. The PCV was negatively associated with mean faecal egg count (FEC) (p<0.05) such that a lower PCV was recorded in animals with a higher Strongyle epg output. A severe burden of M. ovis was accompanied by an increased nematode FEC and decreased haematocrit (p<0.05). Coinfections of Strongyles, or Eimeria species involving M. ovis were associated with a higher parasitaemia compared with single infections (p<0.05). This study highlights the importance of M. ovis and Strongyle or Eimeria species coinfections among goat flocks and provides valuable data for developing and implementing an integrated herd health management program for parasite control among low-input smallholder flocks.
The ability to cope with infection by a parasite is one of the major challenges for any host species and is a major driver of evolution. Parasite pressure differs between habitats. It is thought to be higher in tropical regions compared to temporal ones. We infected Drosophila melanogaster from two tropical (Malaysia and Zimbabwe) and two temperate populations (the Netherlands and North Carolina) with the generalist entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana to examine if adaptation to local parasite pressures led to differences in resistance. Contrary to previous findings we observed increased survival in temperate populations. This, however, is not due to increased resistance to infection per se, but rather the consequence of a higher general vigor of the temperate populations. We also assessed transcriptional response to infection within these flies eight and 24 hours after infection. Only few genes were induced at the earlier time point, most of which are involved in detoxification. In contrast, we identified more than 4,000 genes that changed their expression state after 24 hours. This response was generally conserved over all populations with only few genes being uniquely regulated in the temperate populations. We furthermore found that the American population was transcriptionally highly diverged from all other populations concerning basal levels of gene expression. This was particularly true for stress and immune response genes, which might be the genetic basis for their elevated vigor.
This study focuses on the parasites in Dascyllus trimaculatus fish in Bidong Island. Though D. trimaculatus is a common reef fish, there is lack on parasites studies of this fish in Malaysia. The objectives of this study are to identify metazoan parasites and analyse the prevalence and mean intensity the parasites in D. trimaculatus. Sampling was randomly conducted on a coral colony of 100 meters within a 15m depth at Pantai Pasir Cina,BidongIsland.ThisresearchresultedintheidentificationofacopepodLernaeocera branchialis and a nematode from the family Camallanidae. The copepods collected in this study infected 20 out of 42 D. trimaculatus specimens, whereas the nematode-like parasites collected infected 18 of out of 42 D. trimaculatus. All copepods found in the gills of D. trimaculatus had a prevalence of 4.95 and mean intensity of 47.62%, while the nematode-like parasite, which were found in the brain, had 2.72 prevalence and 42.86% mean intensity. This elucidates that both parasites are categorised as having light levelbut common frequency of infection, and the current IUCN status of D. trimaculatus has not been reported to be harmedby parasites. Though the mean intensity of both parasites isnot harmful, the prevalence are concerning and might increase in the future, with further incorporation and monitoring of climate change factors that may affect the damselfish.
Sarcocystis scandentiborneensis sp. nov. was discovered in histological sections of striated musculature of treeshrews (Tupaia minor, T. tana) from Northern Borneo. Sarcocysts were cigar-shaped, 102 μm-545 μm long, and on average 53 μm in diameter. The striated cyst wall varied in thickness (2-10 μm), depending on whether the finger-like, villous protrusions (VP) were bent. Ultrastructurally, sarcocysts were similar to wall type 12 but basal microtubules extended into VPs that tapered off with a unique U-shaped, electron-dense apical structure. In phylogenetic trees of the nuclear 18S rRNA gene, S. scandentiborneensis formed a distinct branch within a monophyletic subclade of Sarcocystis spp. with (colubrid) snake-rodent life cycle. We mapped all intraspecific (two haplotypes) and interspecific nucleotide substitutions to the secondary structure of the 18S rRNA gene: in both cases, the highest variability occurred within helices V2 and V4 but intraspecific variability mostly related to transitions, while transition/transversion ratios between S. scandentiborneensis, S. zuoi, and S. clethrionomyelaphis were skewed towards transversions. Lack of relevant sequences restricted phylogenetic analysis of the mitochondrial Cytochrome C oxidase subunit I (COI) gene to include only one species of Sarcocystis recovered from a snake host (S. pantherophisi) with which the new species formed a sister relationship. We confirm the presence of the functionally important elements of the COI barcode amino acid sequence of S. scandentiborneensis, whereby the frequency of functionally important amino acids (Alanine, Serine) was markedly different to other taxa of the Sarcocystidae. We regard S. scandentiborneensis a new species, highlighting that structurally or functionally important aspects of the 18S rRNA and COI could expand their utility for delineation of species. We also address the question why treeshrews, believed to be close to primates, carry a parasite that is genetically close to a Sarcocystis lineage preferably developing in the Rodentia as intermediate hosts.
A myopathy associated with elongated intramuscular protozoan schizonts of uncertain classification was observed in chickens in commercial farms. Of 152 affected fowls originating from 21 flocks in 12 farms, 149 were 24 weeks of age or older and 136 were broiler breeder birds. Both sexes were affected. The disease was only observed during the months of October, November and December, 1976 and 1977. The monthly mortality rate in affected adult flocks rose by 0.5% to 4% and the egg production declined by 5% to 15% during this period. Most affected birds were in good body condition or overweight. Gross lesions were usually present in all skeletal muscles and the cardiac muscle. They resembled nutritional myopathy, sarcosporidiosis, leucocytozoonosis or haemorrhagic syndrome. Microscopically visible elongated schizonts were demonstrated in skeletal muscles and the cardiac muscle in 49 of 55 birds examined histologically. The possible aetiology with respect to known parasites of muscles in fowls is discussed.
The objective of this study was to assess the physico-chemical parameters and waterborne parasites in selected recreational lakes from Malaysia. Samples were collected from seven stations of Recreational Lake A (RL-A) and six stations of Recreational Lake B (RL-B). The samples were processed to detect the presence of Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. using immunomagnetic separation kit, helminth eggs or ova by bright field microscopy and Acanthamoeba spp. by cultivation in non-nutrient agar. Chemical parameters such as ammonia, chlorine, fluoride, nitrate and nitrite and physical parameters such as dissolved oxygen, electrical conductivity, pH, salinity, temperature and total dissolved solid were also measured. Both lakes were freshwater with salinity ranging from 0.05 to 0.09 ppt. Most stations of these lakes were contaminated with Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia spp., Ascaris spp. and hookworm. Schistosoma spp. was found in RL-B only, while Acanthamoeba spp. was found in all stations. Of all sampling sites, station 5 of RL-B is the most contaminated. Linear regression and correlation analysis revealed that Giardia spp. and Schistosoma spp. showed a significant negative correlation with turbidity (p
The Labroides dimidiatus is known as the "doctor fish" because of its role in removing parasites and infectious pathogens from the body of other fishes. This important role played both in wild and captive conditions could represent a novel form of parasitic transmission process mediated by the cleaning activity of the fish. Yet, there is a paucity of data on the microflora associated with this fish which is important for tracking disease infection and generally monitoring the health status of the fish. This article, therefore, represents the first dataset for the microbiota composition of wild and captive L. dimidiatus. Wild fish samples and carriage water were gotten in Terengganu Malaysia around the corals of the Karah Island. The captive sample, however, was obtained from well-known ornamental fish suppliers in Terengganu Malaysia. Thereafter, bacteria present on the skin, in the stomach and the aquarium water were enumerated using culture-independent approaches and Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) technology. Data obtained from the three metagenomic libraries using NGS analysis gave 1,426,740 amplicon sequence reads which are composed of 508 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) for wild samples and 3,238,564 valid reads and 828 OTUs for captive samples. All sequence reads were deposited in the GeneBank (Accession numbers SAMN14260247, SAMN14260248, SAMN14260249, SAMN14260250, SAMN14260251, and SAMN14260252). The dataset presented is associated with the research article "16S rDNA-Based Metagenomic Analysis of Microbial Communities Associated with Wild Labroides dimidiatus From Karah Island, Terengganu, Malaysia" [1]. The microbiota data presented in this article can be used to monitor the health and wellbeing of the ornamental fish, especially under captivity, hence preventing possible cross-infection.
Malaria is still a very real threat to health in S.E. Asia including Malaysia. While there has been a dramatic fall in the number of cases and also the number of deaths from the disease in Malaysia cases are still occurring and there has actually been a rise in the number of deaths in the past year. Parts of Perak and the East Coast states are still high risk areas in Peninsular Malaysia. While 95 percent of the population of Peninsular Malaysia is now malaria-free there has also been a concomitant loss of herd immunity which means that if a non-immune person contracts falciparum malaria he stands a greater chance of a fatal outcome. Doctors and other health personnel should be more malaria conscious and make a practice of making blood films of all cases of fever. This is especially important in the rural areas and Estate Hospital Assistants must be encouraged to look for malaria parasites in their fever patients. The younger generation of EHAs have little experience of malaria and a definite policy of education to bring them up to date in antimalarial work and microscopic detection of the parasite should be under taken by the industry. Some problems of chemotherapy and drug resistance are discussed.
A study to determine the diversity and distribution of ectoparasites and endoparasites infesting wild rat population of Carey Island was carried out from June to December 2010. A total of 81 rats were captured from various locations on Carey Island. Four rat species were identified namely, Rattus tiomanicus (45.7%), Rattus rattus diardii (25.9%), Rattus argentiventer (16%) and Rattus norvegicus (12.3%). Low diversity of ecto and endoparasites were observed infecting the rodent population with 8 ecto and 8 endoparasites species recorded. The ectoparasites recovered fell under 3 broad groups, namely mites (Laelaps nuttali, Laelaps echidninus, Laelaps sculpturatus, Listrophoroides sp. and Ornithonyssus bacoti), lice (Polyplax spinulosa and Hoplopleura pacifica) and tick (Ixodes granulatus) while endoparasites recovered were cestodes (Taenia taeniaformis and Hymenolepis diminuta) and nematodes (Nippostrongylus brasiliensis, Angiostrongylus malaysiensis, Mastophorus muris, Heterakis spumosa, Hepatojarakus malayae and Syphacia muris). The rat population was observed harbouring more than one parasite species. Analysis of data also showed neither intrinsic (host age, host sex) nor extrinsic (season) factors influenced the macroparasites community structure.
The aim of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of enteroparasitic infections in students and their hormonal and immunological repercussions on physical development. Students of basic education of both sexes were evaluated. Parasitological stool tests were performed using the Hoffman and Kato-Katz methods. The students were divided into two groups: a control group (negative parasitological examination, N=25) and an infected group (positive parasitological test, N=25). Anthropometric variables (height, weight, and BMI), concentrations of hormones (melatonin and cortisol), cytokine/chemokine levels (IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, IL-17 and TNF-α) and physical performance (aerobic capacity, upper- and lower-limb muscle strength and abdominal performance) were evaluated. The prevalence of parasitic infection among the students was 7.98%. No anthropometric differences were observed among the groups. IL-2 and TNF-α levels were higher and IL-8 levels were lower in serum from students who were positive for parasitic infection. Serum from students who were positive for parasitic infection showed higher levels of melatonin than that from parasitenegative students. No differences were observed in cortisol levels. Students who were positive for parasitic infection presented greater lower-limb strength and lower abdominal performance than parasite-negative students. In the parasitic infection group, IL-12 was positively correlated with melatonin. In the parasitic infection group, IL-8 showed a positive correlation with aerobic capacity, while IL-17 and TNF-α showed a positive correlation with abdominal performance. These data suggest that parasitic infections determine the profile of inflammatory cytokines and that melatonin may be involved in the control of this process to minimize tissue damage. Additionally, students' difficulty in practising physical exercises can be an indication of enteroparasitic infection.
BACKGROUND: The recombinant antigen BmR1 has been extensively employed in both ELISA and immunochromatographic rapid dipstick (Brugia Rapid) formats for the specific and sensitive detection of IgG4 antibodies against the lymphatic filarial parasites Brugia malayi and Brugia timori. In sera of individuals infected with Wuchereria bancrofti the IgG4 reactivity to BmR1 is variable, and cross-reactivity of sera from individuals infected with Onchocerca volvulus or Loa loa was observed only in single cases. In order to characterize the homologs of the BmR1 antigen in W. bancrofti (Wb-BmR1), O. volvulus (Ov-BmR1) and L. loa (Ll-BmR1) the cDNA sequences were identified, the protein expressed and the antibody reactivity of patients' sera was studied. METHODS: PCR methodology was used to identify the cDNA sequences from cDNA libraries and/or genomic DNA of W. bancrofti, O. volvulus and L. loa. The clones obtained were sequenced and compared to the cDNA sequence of BmR1. Ov-BmR1 and Ll-BmR1 were expressed in E. coli and tested using an IgG4-ELISA with 262 serum samples from individuals with or without B. malayi, W. bancrofti, O. volvulus and L. loa infections or various other parasitic infections. BmR1, Ov-BmR1 and Ll-BmR1 were also tested for reactivity with the other three IgG subclasses in patients' sera. RESULTS: Wb-BmR1 was found to be identical to BmR1. Ov-BmR1 and Ll-BmR1 were found to be identical to each other and share 99.7% homology with BmR1. The pattern of IgG4 recognition of all serum samples to BmR1, Ov-BmR1 and Ll-BmR1 were identical. This included weak IgG4 reactivities demonstrated by L. loa- and O. volvulus-infected patients tested with Ov-BmR1 and Ll-BmR1 (or BmR1). With respect to reactivity to other IgG subclasses, sera from O. volvulus- and L. loa-infected patients showed positive reactions (when tested with BmR1, Ov-BmR1 or Ll-BmR1 antigens) only with IgG1. No reactivity was observed with IgG2 or with IgG3. Similarly, ELISAs to detect reactivity to other anti-filarial IgG subclasses antibodies showed that sera from individuals infected with B. malayi or W. bancrofti (active infections as well as patients with chronic disease) were positive with BmR1 only for IgG1 and were negative when tested with IgG2 and with IgG3 subclasses. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that homologs of the BmR1 antigen are present in W. bancrofti, O. volvulus and L. loa and that these antigens are highly conserved. Recognition of this antigen by patients' sera is similar with regard to IgG1, IgG2 and IgG3, but different for IgG4 antibodies. We conclude that the BmR1 antigen is suitable for detection of IgG4 antibodies in brugian filariasis. However, its homologs are not suitable for IgG4-based diagnosis of other filarial infections.
Sarcocystis species are pathogenic parasites that infect a wide range of animals, including cattle. A high prevalence of cattle sarcocystosis has been reported worldwide, but its status is unknown in Malaysia. This study focused on utilizing 18S rDNA to identify Sarcocystis species in Malaysian cattle and to determine their genetic variants. In this study, only Sarcocystis cruzi was detected in Malaysian cattle. The intra-species S. cruzi phylogenetic tree analysis and principal coordinate analysis (PCoA), respectively displayed two minor groups among the parasite isolates. This finding was supported by high Wright FST value (FST=0.647). The definitive hosts (dogs) may play a fundamental role in the development of S. cruzi genetic variants. Additionally, the existence of microheterogeneity within the S. cruzi merozoites and/or distinct genetic variants arisen from independent merozoites in mature sarcocysts, possibly contributed to the existence of intra-species variations within the population.
Introduction: Artemether and lumefantrine was registered as Riamet in Switzerland in 1999 and is commonly used in Keningau Hospital for managing uncomplicated malaria. Riamet works at the food vacoule of the malarial parasite, where they interfere with the conversion of heme into haemozoin. Case description: We report a case of Riamet induced prolonged corrected QT interval (QTc) in a 37 year old gentleman admitted for severe malaria (hypotension) with normal QTc of 420msc on presentation. Upon starting Riamet, he developed bradycardia and ECG showed sinus bradycardia with prolonged QTc of 551msec and no arrythmias. Echocardiography showed no structural heart abnormalities. All electrolytes were within normal range. He was monitored in cardiac care unit with decision to complete 6 doses of Riamet. Patient was started on Dopamine infusion which maintained his blood pressure and heart rate within normal range. 5 days post Riamet completion, his heart rate improved and dopamine infusion was tapered off and QTc normalized to 407msc. Discussion: The most common mechanism of drugs causing QT inter-val prolongation is by blocking the human ether-à-go-go related gene (hERG) potassium channel. Blockage of the hEGR channel lengthens ventricular re-polarization and duration of ventricular action potential which is reflected in ECG as prolonged QT interval. In the in-vitro whole cell patch clamp study, lumefantrine and its metabolite desbu-tyl-lumefantrine showed a concentration-dependent inhibition of the hERG current. The period of QTc prolongation was 3.5 to 4 days after the last dose of the standard 6 dose regimen. Conclusion: Riamet induced prolonged QTc is a very rare complication. A baseline electrocardiography is therefore imminent for every patient prior to initiation of this medication to avoid cardiac arrythmias.
Gastrointestinal helminthosis is a global problem in small ruminant production. Most parasites have developed resistance to commonly available anthelminthic compounds, and there is currently an increasing need for new compounds with more efficacies. This study evaluated the in vitro effects of ethanolic extract of Curcuma longa (EECL) as a biological nematicide against third stage Haemonchus larvae (L3) isolated from sheep.
Eosinophilic gastroenteritis, an inflammatory disease of unknown etiology, commonly involves the stomach and small intestine with eosinophilic infiltration. Here, we report an unusual case of eosinophilic gastroenteritis involving the entire digestive tract as a manifestation of hypereosinophilic syndrome (HES). A 22-year-old woman presented to us with diarrhoea, pleural effusion, ascites and marked peripheral oeosinophilia. Stool specimens were negative for parasites, ova, bacteria, and fungi. Endoscopic studies showed pangastritis and duodenitis. Biopsy specimens of the oesophagus, stomach, duodenum, ileum, and colon demonstrated oeosinophilic infiltration. A diagnosis of hypereosinophilic syndrome with eosinophilic gastroenteritis involving the entire digestive tract was made. Hence, she was treated with prednisolone. Symptoms and peripheral oeosinophilia rapidly resolved with treatment, and radiological investigations revealed resolution of effusion. This case illustrates the wide spectrum of clinical manifestation of the disease, whereby it involves the entire digestive tract and it also emphasizes the diagnostic yields of endoscopic biopsies.
Despite the natural occurrences of human infections by Plasmodium knowlesi, P. cynomolgi, P. inui, and P. fieldi in Thailand, investigating the prevalence and genetic diversity of the zoonotic simian malaria parasites in macaque populations has been limited to certain areas. To address this gap, a total of 560 long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) and 20 southern pig-tailed macaques (M. nemestrina) were captured from 15 locations across 10 provinces throughout Thailand between 2018 and 2021 for investigation of malaria, as were 15 human samples residing in two simian-malaria endemic provinces, namely Songkhla and Satun, who exhibited malaria-like symptoms. Using PCR techniques targeting the mitochondrial cytb and cox1 genes coupled with DNA sequencing, 40 long-tailed macaques inhabiting five locations had mono-infections with one of the three simian malaria species. Most of the positive cases of macaque were infected with P. inui (32/40), while infections with P. cynomolgi (6/40) and P. knowlesi (2/40) were less common and confined to specific macaque populations. Interestingly, all 15 human cases were mono-infected with P. knowlesi, with one of them residing in an area with two P. knowlesi-infected macaques. Nucleotide sequence analysis showed a high level of genetic diversity in P. inui, while P. cynomolgi and P. knowlesi displayed limited genetic diversity. Phylogenetic and haplotype network analyses revealed that P. inui in this study was closely related to simian and Anopheles isolates from Peninsular Malaysia, while P. cynomolgi clustered with simian and human isolates from Asian countries. P. knowlesi, which was found in both macaques and humans in this study, was closely related to isolates from macaques, humans, and An. hackeri in Peninsular Malaysia, suggesting a sylvatic transmission cycle extending across these endemic regions. This study highlights the current hotspots for zoonotic simian malaria and sheds light on the genetic characteristics of recent isolates in both macaques and human residents in Thailand.
Malaria, a mosquito-transmitted parasitic disease, has been targeted for elimination in many parts of the world. For many years, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium ovale and Plasmodium malariae have been known to cause malaria in humans. Now, Plasmodium knowlesi is considered to be an important cause of malaria, especially in Southeast Asia. The emergence of P. knowlesi with zoonotic implication is a challenge in the elimination efforts of malaria in Southeast Asia. P. knowlesi is known to cause severe complicated malaria in humans. P. knowlesi parasite is transmitted between humans and wild macaque through mosquito vectors. It appears that the malaria disease severity and host immune evasion depend on antigenic variation exhibited at the surface of the infected erythrocyte. P. knowlesi is sensitive to antimalarial drug artemisinin. Identification of vector species, their biting behavior, timely correct diagnosis, and treatment are important steps in disease management and control. There is a need to identify and implement effective intervention measures to cut the chain of transmissions from animals to humans. The zoonotic malaria definitely poses a significant challenge in elimination and subsequent eradication of all types of malaria from this globe.