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  1. Fulltext Plasmodium knowlesi exhibits distinct in vitro drug susceptibility profiles from those of Plasmodium falciparum
    van Schalkwyk DA, Blasco B, Davina Nuñez R, Liew JWK, Amir A, Lau YL, et al.
    Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist, 2019 04;9:93-99.
    PMID: 30831468 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2019.02.004
    New antimalarial agents are identified and developed after extensive testing on Plasmodium falciparum parasites that can be grown in vitro. These susceptibility studies are important to inform lead optimisation and support further drug development. Until recently, little was known about the susceptibility of non-falciparum species as these had not been adapted to in vitro culture. The recent culture adaptation of P. knowlesi has therefore offered an opportunity to routinely define the drug susceptibility of this species, which is phylogenetically closer to all other human malarias than is P. falciparum. We compared the in vitro susceptibility of P. knowlesi and P. falciparum to a range of established and novel antimalarial agents under identical assay conditions. We demonstrated that P. knowlesi is significantly less susceptible than P. falciparum to six of the compounds tested; and notably these include three ATP4 inhibitors currently under development as novel antimalarial agents, and one investigational antimalarial, AN13762, which is 67 fold less effective against P. knowlesi. For the other compounds there was a less than two-fold difference in susceptibility between species. We then compared the susceptibility of a recent P. knowlesi isolate, UM01, to that of the well-established, older A1-H.1 clone. This recent isolate showed similar in vitro drug susceptibility to the A1-H.1 clone, supporting the ongoing use of the better characterised clone to further study drug susceptibility. Lastly, we used isobologram analysis to explore the interaction of a selection of drug combinations and showed similar drug interactions across species. The species differences in drug susceptibility reported by us here and previously, support adding in vitro drug screens against P. knowlesi to those using P. falciparum strains to inform new drug discovery and lead optimisation.
    Matched MeSH terms: Artemisinins/pharmacology
  2. Fulltext Repurposing Antimalarials to Tackle the COVID-19 Pandemic
    Krishna S, Augustin Y, Wang J, Xu C, Staines HM, Platteeuw H, et al.
    Trends Parasitol, 2021 01;37(1):8-11.
    PMID: 33153922 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2020.10.003
    Artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) have demonstrated in vitro inhibition of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Artemisinins have also shown anti-inflammatory effects, including inhibition of interleukin-6 (IL-6) that plays a key role in the development of severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). There is now sufficient evidence for the effectiveness of ACTs, and in particular artesunate/pyronaridine, to support clinical studies for COVID-19 infections.
    Matched MeSH terms: Artemisinins/pharmacology
  3. Malaria successes and challenges in Asia
    Bhatia R, Rastogi RM, Ortega L
    J Vector Borne Dis, 2013 Dec;50(4):239-47.
    PMID: 24499845
    Asia ranks second to Africa in terms of malaria burden. In 19 countries of Asia, malaria is endemic and 2.31 billion people or 62% of the total population in these countries are at risk of malaria. In 2010, WHO estimated around 34.8 million cases and 45,600 deaths due to malaria in Asia. In 2011, 2.7 million cases and > 2000 deaths were reported. India, Indonesia, Myanmar and Pakistan are responsible for >85% of the reported cases (confirmed) and deaths in Asia. In last 10 yr, due to availability of donor's fund specially from Global fund, significant progress has been made by the countries in Asia in scaling-up malaria control interventions which were instrumental in reducing malaria morbidity and mortality significantly. There is a large heterogeneity in malaria epidemiology in Asia. As a result, the success in malaria control/elimination is also diverse. As compared to the data of the year 2000, out of 19 malaria endemic countries, 12 countries were able to reduce malaria incidence (microscopically confirmed cases only) by 75%. Two countries, namely Bangladesh and Malaysia are projected to reach 75% reduction by 2015 while India is projected to reach 50-75% only by 2015. The trend could not be assessed in four countries, namely Indonesia, Myanmar, Pakistan and Timor-Leste due to insufficient consistent data. Numerous key challenges need to be addressed to sustain the gains and eliminate malaria in most parts of Asia. Some of these are to control the spread of resistance in Plasmodium falciparum to artemisinin, control of outdoor transmission, control of vivax malaria and ensuring universal coverage of key interventions. Asia has the potential to influence the malaria epidemiology all over the world as well as to support the global efforts in controlling and eliminating malaria through production of quality-assured ACTs, RDTs and long-lasting insecticidal nets.
    Matched MeSH terms: Artemisinins/pharmacology*
  4. Fulltext Importance of kelch 13 C580Y mutation in the studies of artemisinin resistance in Plasmodium falciparum in Greater Mekong Subregion
    Zaw MT, Lin Z, Emran NA
    J Microbiol Immunol Infect, 2020 Oct;53(5):676-681.
    PMID: 31563454 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmii.2019.07.006
    The mortality caused by Plasmodium falciparum was reduced by Artemisinin (ART) and ART combination therapy (ACT). However, Artemisinin resistance (ART-R) emerge during 2008 in Cambodia and spread to Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS). ART-R was confirmed not to spread to India, a gateway to whole Africa. The whole genome sequencing approach of P. falciparum assumed the k13 gene encoded Kelch protein was discovered to be associated with ART-R. Of the single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of k13 gene, C580Y mutant was commonly dominant in Cambodia, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam and assumed to be one of strong molecular markers for ART-R in P. falciparum isolates in GMS. Literatures published between 2017 and 2018 were reviewed in this work. F446I is observed to be doubtful molecular marker as ART-R marker. Transgenic experiment showed that parasite with F446I mutation displayed prolonged clearance in respond to ART while C580Y was applied as positive control mutant. Furthermore, study of C580Y allele in four countries Cambodia, Thailand, Laos resulted in single origin whereas the parasite with this allele showed multi-origin in three Provinces of Vietnam. As artemisinin was short acting drug, the role of long acting partner drug was studied by using transgenic C580Y mutant and C580 to leave recrudescent P. falciparum. Recently, there was treatment failure with ACT in some countries in GMS. In this review, the importance of C580Y mutation in the study of ART-R was discussed.
    Matched MeSH terms: Artemisinins/pharmacology*
  5. Current progress in antimalarial pharmacotherapy and multi-target drug discovery
    Tibon NS, Ng CH, Cheong SL
    Eur J Med Chem, 2020 Feb 15;188:111983.
    PMID: 31911292 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2019.111983
    Discovery and development of antimalarial drugs have long been dominated by single-target therapy. Continuous effort has been made to explore and identify different targets in malaria parasite crucial for the malaria treatment. The single-target drug therapy was initially successful, but it was later supplanted by combination therapy with multiple drugs to overcome drug resistance. Emergence of resistant strains even against the combination therapy has warranted a review of current antimalarial pharmacotherapy. This has led to the development of the new concept of covalent biotherapy, in which two or more pharmacophores are chemically bound to produce hybrid antimalarial drugs with multi-target functionalities. Herein, the review initially details the current pharmacotherapy for malaria as well as the conventional and novel targets of importance identified in the malaria parasite. Then, the rationale of multi-targeted therapy for malaria, approaches taken to develop the multi-target antimalarial hybrids, and the examples of hybrid molecules are comprehensively enumerated and discussed.
    Matched MeSH terms: Artemisinins/pharmacology*
  6. Fulltext Antimicrobial activity of artemisinin and precursor derived from in vitro plantlets of Artemisia annua L
    Appalasamy S, Lo KY, Ch'ng SJ, Nornadia K, Othman AS, Chan LK
    Biomed Res Int, 2014;2014:215872.
    PMID: 24575401 DOI: 10.1155/2014/215872
    Artemisia annua L., a medicinal herb, produces secondary metabolites with antimicrobial property. In Malaysia due to the tropical hot climate, A. annua could not be planted for production of artemisinin, the main bioactive compound. In this study, the leaves of three in vitro A. annua L. clones were, extracted and two bioactive compounds, artemisinin and a precursor, were isolated by thin layer chromatography. These compounds were found to be effective in inhibiting the growth of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria but not Candida albicans. Their antimicrobial activity was similar to that of antibactericidal antibiotic streptomycin. They were found to inhibit the growth of the tested microbes at the minimum inhibition concentration of 0.09 mg/mL, and toxicity test using brine shrimp showed that even the low concentration of 0.09 mg/mL was very lethal towards the brine shrimps with 100% mortality rate. This study hence indicated that in vitro cultured plantlets of A. annua can be used as the alternative method for production of artemisinin and its precursor with antimicrobial activities.
    Matched MeSH terms: Artemisinins/pharmacology*
  7. Sub-lethal concentrations of artemisinin alter pH of the digestive vacuole of the malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum
    Ibrahim N, Roslee A, Azlan M, Abu-Bakar N
    Trop Biomed, 2020 Mar 01;37(1):1-14.
    PMID: 33612713
    An appropriate pH maintenance within a membrane-enclosed organelle is vital for the occurrence of biological processes. Artemisinin (ART), a potent antimalarial drug has been reported to target the digestive vacuole (DV) of Plasmodium falciparum, which might alter the pH of the organelle, thereby impairing the hemoglobin degradation and subsequent heme detoxification. Hence, a flow cytometry-based technique using fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran (FITC-dextran) as a ratiometric pH probe was employed to measure the pH of the DV of the malaria parasite treated with ART. Based on the pH calibration curve generated, the steady-state pH of the acidic DV of the non-treated parasites was 5.42 ± 0.11, indicating that FITC-dextran is suitable for detection of physiological pH of the organelle. The alteration of the DV pH occurred when the parasites were treated with ART even at the sub-lethal concentrations (15 and 30 nM) used. The similar effect was shown by the parasites treated with a standard proton pump inhibitor, concanamycin A. This suggests that ART might have altered the DV pH at lower levels than the level needed to kill the parasite. This study has important implications in designing new ART treatment strategies and in generating new endoperoxide-based antimalarial drugs pertaining to the interruption of the pH regulation of the malaria parasite's DV.
    Matched MeSH terms: Artemisinins/pharmacology*
  8. Fulltext Susceptibility of human Plasmodium knowlesi infections to anti-malarials
    Fatih FA, Staines HM, Siner A, Ahmed MA, Woon LC, Pasini EM, et al.
    Malar J, 2013;12:425.
    PMID: 24245918 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-12-425
    Evidence suggests that Plasmodium knowlesi malaria in Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo remains zoonotic, meaning anti-malarial drug resistance is unlikely to have developed in the absence of drug selection pressure. Therefore, adequate response to available anti-malarial treatments is assumed.
    Matched MeSH terms: Artemisinins/pharmacology
  9. Fulltext Eurycoma longifolia extract-artemisinin combination: parasitemia suppression of Plasmodium yoelii-infected mice
    Mohd Ridzuan MA, Sow A, Noor Rain A, Mohd Ilham A, Zakiah I
    Trop Biomed, 2007 Jun;24(1):111-8.
    PMID: 17568384 MyJurnal
    Eurycoma longifolia, locally known as 'Tongkat Ali' is a popular local medicinal plant that possess a lot of medicinal properties as claimed traditionally, especially in the treatment of malaria. The claims have been proven scientifically on isolated compounds from the plant. The present study is to investigate the anti malaria properties of Eurycoma longifolia standardized extract (root) (TA164) alone and in combination with artemisinin in vivo. Combination treatment of the standardized extract (TA164) with artemisinin suppressed P. yoelii infection in the experimental mice. The 4 day suppressive test showed that TA164 suppressed the parasitemia of P. yoelii-infected mice as dose dependent manner (10, 30 and 60 mg/kg BW) by oral and subcutaneous treatment. By oral administration, combination of TA164 at 10, 30 and 60 mg/kg BW each with artemisinin respectively showed a significant increase in the parasitemia suppression to 63, 67 and 80 percent as compared to artemisinin single treatment (31%). Using subcutaneous administration, at 10 mg/kg BW of TA164 in combination with 1.7 mg/kg BW of artemisinin gave a suppression of 80% of infection. This study showed that combination treatment of TA164 with artemisinin gives a promising potential anti malaria candidate using both oral and subcutaneous route, the later being the most potent.
    Matched MeSH terms: Artemisinins/pharmacology*
  10. Fulltext Multisectoral Approach to Support Use of Insecticide-Treated Net for Malaria Prevention Among Mobile and Migrant Populations in Myanmar: A Systematic Review
    Naing C, Whittaker MA, Tanner M
    J Infect Dis, 2020 10 29;222(Suppl 8):S717-S725.
    PMID: 33119095 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiaa335
    BACKGROUND: Myanmar is a premalaria elimination country with artemisinin-resistant malaria. A strategy for transmission control is focused on vulnerable groups such as mobile and migrant populations (MMPs), and includes improving access to insecticide-treated bed nets in the Myanmar artemisinin resistance containment (MARC) zones using multisectoral approaches (MSA).

    METHODS: This narrative systematic review addressed MSAs targeted to MMPs in Myanmar for malaria prevention. We searched relevant studies in electronic databases and present the narrative findings in 4 domains: stakeholder groups, net coverage and utilization, social determinates, and facilitators/barriers.

    RESULTS: Nine studies were included. The review identified stakeholders involved in intersectoral collaboration. Net ownership was higher than utilization rates in the MARC zones and rates remained below the WHO recommended target of 100%. There was inadequate description of roles and responsibilities for implementation and on channels of communication within the partnerships and with the Government.

    CONCLUSIONS: Findings show that interventions to distribute treated bed nets were supported by the multiple stakeholders. Due to the design of the primary studies, analysis of the added value of intersectoral collaboration was limited. More attention must be paid to designing studies to document and evaluate the contributions and outcomes of intersectoral collaboration.

    Matched MeSH terms: Artemisinins/pharmacology
  11. Fulltext Plasmodium falciparum artemisinin resistance monitoring in Sabah, Malaysia: in vivo therapeutic efficacy and kelch13 molecular marker surveillance
    Grigg MJ, William T, Piera KA, Rajahram GS, Jelip J, Aziz A, et al.
    Malar J, 2018 Dec 10;17(1):463.
    PMID: 30526613 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-018-2593-x
    BACKGROUND: Spreading Plasmodium falciparum artemisinin drug resistance threatens global malaria public health gains. Limited data exist to define the extent of P. falciparum artemisinin resistance southeast of the Greater Mekong region in Malaysia.

    METHODS: A clinical efficacy study of oral artesunate (total target dose 12 mg/kg) daily for 3 days was conducted in patients with uncomplicated falciparum malaria and a parasite count 

    Matched MeSH terms: Artemisinins/pharmacology*
  12. Validation of high performance liquid chromatography-electrochemical detection methods with simultaneous extraction procedure for the determination of artesunate, dihydroartemisinin, amodiaquine and desethylamodiaquine in human plasma for application in clinical pharmacological studies of artesunate-amodiaquine drug combination
    Lai CS, Nair NK, Muniandy A, Mansor SM, Olliaro PL, Navaratnam V
    J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci, 2009 Feb 15;877(5-6):558-62.
    PMID: 19147417 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2008.12.037
    With the expanded use of the combination of artesunate (AS) and amodiaquine (AQ) for the treatment of falciparum malaria and the abundance of products on the market, comes the need for rapid and reliable bioanalytical methods for the determination of the parent compounds and their metabolites. While the existing methods were developed for the determination of either AS or AQ in biological fluids, the current validated method allows simultaneous extraction and determination of AS and AQ in human plasma. Extraction is carried out on Supelclean LC-18 extraction cartridges where AS, its metabolite dihydroartemisinin (DHA) and the internal standard artemisinin (QHS) are separated from AQ, its metabolite desethylamodiaquine (DeAQ) and the internal standard, an isobutyl analogue of desethylamodiaquine (IB-DeAQ). AS, DHA and QHS are then analysed using Hypersil C4 column with acetonitrile-acetic acid (0.05M adjusted to pH 5.2 with 1.00M NaOH) (42:58, v/v) as mobile phase at flow rate 1.50ml/min. The analytes are detected with an electrochemical detector operating in the reductive mode. Chromatography of AQ, DeAQ and IB-DeAQ is carried out on an Inertsil C4 column with acetonitrile-KH(2)PO(4) (pH 4.0, 0.05M) (11:89, v/v) as mobile phase at flow rate 1.00ml/min. The analytes are detected by an electrochemical detector operating in the oxidative mode. The recoveries of AS, DHA, AQ and DeAQ vary between 79.1% and 104.0% over the concentration range of 50-1400ng/ml plasma. The accuracies of the determination of all the analytes are 96.8-103.9%, while the variation for within-day and day-to-day analysis are <15%. The lower limit of quantification for all the analytes is 20ng/ml and limit of detection is 8ng/ml. The method is sensitive, selective, accurate, reproducible and suited particularly for pharmacokinetic study of AS-AQ drug combination and can also be used to compare the bioavailability of different formulations, including a fixed-dose AS-AQ co-formulation.
    Matched MeSH terms: Artemisinins/pharmacology*
  13. Fulltext Influence of the pfmdr1 Gene on In Vitro Sensitivities of Piperaquine in Thai Isolates of Plasmodium falciparum
    Mungthin M, Watanatanasup E, Sitthichot N, Suwandittakul N, Khositnithikul R, Ward SA
    Am J Trop Med Hyg, 2017 03;96(3):624-629.
    PMID: 28044042 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.16-0668
    Piperaquine combined with dihydroartemisinin is one of the artemisinin derivative combination therapies, which can replace artesunate-mefloquine in treating uncomplicated falciparum malaria in Thailand. The aim of this study was to determine the in vitro sensitivity of Thai Plasmodium falciparum isolates against piperaquine and the influence of the pfmdr1 gene on in vitro response. One hundred and thirty-seven standard laboratory and adapted Thai isolates of P. falciparum were assessed for in vitro piperaquine sensitivity. Polymorphisms of the pfmdr1 gene were determined by polymerase chain reaction methods. The mean and standard deviation of the piperaquine IC50 in Thai isolates of P. falciparum were 16.7 ± 6.3 nM. The parasites exhibiting chloroquine IC50 of ≥ 100 nM were significantly less sensitive to piperaquine compared with the parasite with chloroquine IC50 of < 100 nM. No significant association between the pfmdr1 copy number and piperaquine IC50 values was found. In contrast, the parasites containing the pfmdr1 86Y allele exhibited significantly reduced piperaquine sensitivity. Before nationwide implementation of dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine as the first-line treatment in Thailand, in vitro and in vivo evaluations of this combination should be performed especially in areas where parasites containing the pfmdr1 86Y allele are predominant such as the Thai-Malaysian border.
    Matched MeSH terms: Artemisinins/pharmacology
  14. Molecular markers associated with resistance to commonly used antimalarial drugs among Plasmodium falciparum isolates from a malaria-endemic area in Taiz governorate-Yemen during the transmission season
    Alareqi LMQ, Mahdy MAK, Lau YL, Fong MY, Abdul-Ghani R, Mahmud R
    Acta Trop, 2016 Oct;162:174-179.
    PMID: 27343362 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2016.06.016
    Since 2005, artesunate (AS) plus sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine (SP) combination has been adopted as the first-line treatment for uncomplicated malaria in Yemen in response to the high level of Plasmodium falciparum resistance to chloroquine (CQ). Therefore, the aim of the present study was to determine the frequency distribution of molecular markers associated with resistance to CQ and AS plus SP combination among P. falciparum isolates from a malaria-endemic area in Taiz governorate, Yemen. Fifty P. falciparum isolates were collected during a cross-sectional study in Mawza district, Taiz, in the period from October 2013 to April 2014. The isolates were investigated for drug resistance-associated molecular markers in five genes, including P. falciparum CQ resistance transporter (pfcrt) 76T and P. falciparum multidrug resistance 1 (pfmdr1) 86Y as markers of resistance to CQ, mutations in the Kelch 13 (K13) propeller domain for resistance to AS, and P. falciparum dihydrofolate reductase (pfdhfr) and P. falciparum dihydropteroate synthase (pfdhps) genes for resistance to SP. Nested polymerase chain reaction was used to amplify target genes in DNA extracts of the isolates followed by restriction fragment length polymorphism for detecting 76T and 86Y mutations in pfcrt and pfmdr1, respectively, and by DNA sequencing for detecting mutations in K13, pfdhfr and pfdhps. All the investigated isolates from Mawza district were harboring the pfcrt 76T mutant and the pfmdr1 N86 wild-type alleles. The pfdhfr 51I/108N double mutant allele was found in 2.2% (1/45) of the isolates; however, no mutations were detected at codons 436, 437, 540, 581 and 613 of pfdhps. All P. falciparum isolates that were successfully sequenced (n=47) showed the K13 Y493, R539, I543 and C580 wild-type alleles. In conclusion, the pfcrt 76T mutant allele is fixed in the study area about six years after the official withdrawal of CQ, possibly indicating its over-the-counter availability and continued use as a self-medication in the study area. However, the almost predominant wild-type alleles of the genes associated with resistance to AS and SP among P. falciparum isolates in the present study indicates the sustained efficacy of the currently adopted first-line treatment of AS plus SP in the study area.
    Matched MeSH terms: Artemisinins/pharmacology
  15. Smart nanocrystals of artemether: fabrication, characterization, and comparative in vitro and in vivo antimalarial evaluation
    Shah SM, Ullah F, Khan S, Shah SM, de Matas M, Hussain Z, et al.
    Drug Des Devel Ther, 2016;10:3837-3850.
    PMID: 27920499
    Artemether (ARTM) is a very effective antimalarial drug with poor solubility and consequently low bioavailability. Smart nanocrystals of ARTM with particle size of 161±1.5 nm and polydispersity index of 0.172±0.01 were produced in <1 hour using a wet milling technology, Dena(®) DM-100. The crystallinity of the processed ARTM was confirmed using differential scanning calorimetry and powder X-ray diffraction. The saturation solubility of the ARTM nanocrystals was substantially increased to 900 µg/mL compared to the raw ARTM in water (145.0±2.3 µg/mL) and stabilizer solution (300.0±2.0 µg/mL). The physical stability studies conducted for 90 days demonstrated that nanocrystals stored at 2°C-8°C and 25°C were very stable compared to the samples stored at 40°C. The nanocrystals were also shown to be stable when processed at acidic pH (2.0). The solubility and dissolution rate of ARTM nanocrystals were significantly increased (P<0.05) compared to those of its bulk powder form. The results of in vitro studies showed significant antimalarial effect (P<0.05) against Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax. The IC50 (median lethal oral dose) value of ARTM nanocrystals was 28- and 54-fold lower than the IC50 value of unprocessed drug and 13- and 21-fold lower than the IC50 value of the marketed tablets, respectively. In addition, ARTM nanocrystals at the same dose (2 mg/kg) showed significantly (P<0.05) higher reduction in percent parasitemia (89%) against P. vivax compared to the unprocessed (27%), marketed tablets (45%), and microsuspension (60%). The acute toxicity study demonstrated that the LD50 value of ARTM nanocrystals is between 1,500 mg/kg and 2,000 mg/kg when given orally. This study demonstrated that the wet milling technology (Dena(®) DM-100) can produce smart nanocrystals of ARTM with enhanced antimalarial activities.
    Matched MeSH terms: Artemisinins/pharmacology*
  16. Fulltext Updates on k13 mutant alleles for artemisinin resistance in Plasmodium falciparum
    Zaw MT, Emran NA, Lin Z
    J Microbiol Immunol Infect, 2018 Apr;51(2):159-165.
    PMID: 28711439 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmii.2017.06.009
    BACKGROUND: In the fight against malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum, the successes achieved by artemisinin were endangered by resistance of the parasites to the drug. Whole genome sequencing approach on artemisinin resistant parasite line discovered k13 gene associated with drug resistance. In vitro and in vivo studies indicated mutations in the k13 gene were linked to the artemisinin resistance.

    METHODOLOGY: The literatures published after April, 2015 up to December, 2016 on k13 mutant alleles for artemisinin resistance in Plasmodium falciparum and relevant literatures were comprehensively reviewed.

    RESULTS: To date, 13 non-synonymous mutations of k13 gene have been observed to have slow parasite clearance. Worldwide mapping of k13 mutant alleles have shown mutants associated with artemisinin resistance were confined to southeast Asia and China and did not invade to African countries. Although in vitro ring stage survival assay of 0-3 h was a recently developed assay, it was useful for rapid detection of artemisinin resistance associated k13 allelic marker in the parasite. Recently, dissemination of k13 mutant alleles was recommended to be investigated by identity of haplotypes. Significant characteristics of well described alleles in the reports were mentioned in this review for the benefit of future studies.

    CONCLUSION: According to the updates in the review, it can be concluded artemisinin resistance does not disseminate to India and African countries within short period whereas regular tracking of these mutants is necessary.

    Matched MeSH terms: Artemisinins/pharmacology*
  17. Variation in intronic microsatellites and exon 2 of the Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter gene during modification of artemisinin combination therapy in Thailand
    Seethamchai S, Buppan P, Kuamsab N, Teeranaipong P, Putaporntip C, Jongwutiwes S
    Infect Genet Evol, 2018 11;65:35-42.
    PMID: 30016713 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2018.07.015
    The amino acid substitution at residue 76 of the food vacuolar transmembrane protein encoded by the chloroquine resistance transporter gene of Plasmodium falciparum (Pfcrt) is an important, albeit imperfect, determinant of chloroquine susceptibility status of the parasite. Other mutations in Pfcrt can modulate susceptibility of P. falciparum to other antimalarials capable of interfering with heme detoxification process, and may exert compensatory effect on parasite growth rate. To address whether nationwide implementation of artemisinin combination therapy (ACT) in Thailand could affect sequence variation in exon 2 and introns of Pfcrt, we analyzed 136 P. falciparum isolates collected during 1997 and 2016 from endemic areas bordering Myanmar, Cambodia and Malaysia. Results revealed 6 haplotypes in exon 2 of Pfcrt with 2 novel substitutions at c.243A > G (p.R81) and c.251A > T (p.N84I). Positive selection was observed at amino acid residues 75, 76 and 97. Four, 3, and 2 alleles of microsatellite (AT/TA) repeats occurred in introns 1, 2 and 4, respectively, resulting in 7 different 3-locus haplotypes. The number of haplotypes and haplotype diversity of exon 2, and introns 1, 2 and 4 were significantly greater among isolates collected during 2009 and 2016 than those collected during 1997 and 2008 when 3-day ACT and 2-day ACT regimens were implemented nationwide, respectively (p 
    Matched MeSH terms: Artemisinins/pharmacology*
  18. Fulltext Molecular Surveillance of Pfkelch13 and Pfmdr1 Mutations in Plasmodium falciparum Isolates from Southern Thailand
    Khammanee T, Sawangjaroen N, Buncherd H, Tun AW, Thanapongpichat S
    Korean J Parasitol, 2019 Aug;57(4):369-377.
    PMID: 31533403 DOI: 10.3347/kjp.2019.57.4.369
    Artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) resistance is widespread throughout the Greater Mekong Subregion. This raises concern over the antimalarial treatment in Thailand since it shares borders with Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar where high ACT failure rates were reported. It is crucial to have information about the spread of ACT resistance for efficient planning and treatment. This study was to identify the molecular markers for antimalarial drug resistance: Pfkelch13 and Pfmdr1 mutations from 5 provinces of southern Thailand, from 2012 to 2017, of which 2 provinces on the Thai- Myanmar border (Chumphon and Ranong), one on Thai-Malaysia border (Yala) and 2 from non-border provinces (Phang Nga and Surat Thani). The results showed that C580Y mutation of Pfkelch13 was found mainly in the province on the Thai-Myanmar border. No mutations in the PfKelch13 gene were found in Surat Thani and Yala. The Pfmdr1 gene isolated from the Thai-Malaysia border was a different pattern from those found in other areas (100% N86Y) whereas wild type strain was present in Phang Nga. Our study indicated that the molecular markers of artemisinin resistance were spread in the provinces bordering along the Thai-Myanmar, and the pattern of Pfmdr1 mutations from the areas along the international border of Thailand differed from those of the non-border provinces. The information of the molecular markers from this study highlighted the recent spread of artemisinin resistant parasites from the endemic area, and the data will be useful for optimizing antimalarial treatment based on regional differences.
    Matched MeSH terms: Artemisinins/pharmacology*
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