Non-binary gender, vulnerable populations and mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic: Data from the COVID-19 MEntal health inTernational for the general population (COMET-G) study

Fountoulakis KN 1 , Vrublevska J 2 , Abraham S 3 , Adorjan K 4 , Ahmed HU 5 , Alarcón RD 6 Show all authors , Arai K 7 , Auwal SS 8 , Berk M 9 , Bjedov S 10 , Bobes J 11 , Bobes-Bascaran T 12 , Bourgin-Duchesnay J 13 , Bredicean CA 14 , Bukelskis L 15 , Burkadze A 16 , Abud IIC 17 , Castilla-Puentes R 18 , Cetkovich M 19 , Colon-Rivera H 20 , Corral R 21 , Cortez-Vergara C 22 , Crepin P 23 , De Berardis D 24 , Delgado SZ 25 , De Lucena D 26 , De Sousa A 27 , Di Stefano R 28 , Dodd S 29 , Elek LP 30 , Elissa A 31 , Erdelyi-Hamza B 30 , Erzin G 32 , Etchevers MJ 33 , Falkai P 34 , Farcas A 35 , Fedotov I 36 , Filatova V 37 , Fountoulakis NK 38 , Frankova I 39 , Franza F 40 , Frias P 41 , Galako T 42 , Garay CJ 43 , Garcia-Álvarez L 44 , García-Portilla MP 45 , Gonda X 30 , Gondek TM 46 , González DM 47 , Gould H 48 , Grandinetti P 49 , Grau A 50 , Groudeva V 51 , Hagin M 52 , Harada T 53 , Hasan TM 54 , Hashim NA 55 , Hilbig J 15 , Hossain S 56 , Iakimova R 57 , Ibrahim M 58 , Iftene F 59 , Ignatenko Y 60 , Irarrazaval M 61 , Ismail Z 62 , Ismayilova J 63 , Jacobs A 64 , Jakovljević M 65 , Jakšić N 10 , Javed A 66 , Kafali HY 67 , Karia S 68 , Kazakova O 69 , Khalifa D 58 , Khaustova O 39 , Koh S 70 , Kosenko K 71 , Koupidis SA 72 , Lalljee A 73 , Liewig J 13 , Majid A 74 , Malashonkova E 75 , Malik K 31 , Malik NI 76 , Mammadzada G 77 , Mandalia B 73 , Marazziti D 78 , Marčinko D 79 , Martinez S 80 , Matiekus E 15 , Mejia G 81 , Memon RS 82 , Martínez XEM 83 , Mickevičiūtė D 84 , Milev R 85 , Mohammed M 86 , Molina-López A 87 , Morozov P 88 , Muhammad NS 89 , Mustač F 10 , Naor MS 90 , Nassieb A 58 , Navickas A 91 , Okasha T 58 , Pandova M 57 , Panfil AL 92 , Panteleeva L 93 , Papava I 94 , Patsali ME 95 , Pavlichenko A 60 , Pejuskovic B 96 , Da Costa MP 97 , Popkov M 98 , Popovic D 99 , Raduan NJN 100 , Ramírez FV 50 , Rancans E 101 , Razali S 102 , Rebok F 103 , Rewekant A 104 , Flores ENR 105 , Rivera-Encinas MT 106 , Saiz P 107 , de Carmona MS 108 , Martínez DS 109 , Saw JA 110 , Saygili G 111 , Schneidereit P 112 , Shah B 113 , Shirasaka T 114 , Silagadze K 115 , Sitanggang S 116 , Skugarevsky O 117 , Spikina A 118 , Mahalingappa SS 119 , Stoyanova M 57 , Szczegielniak A 120 , Tamasan SC 92 , Tavormina G 121 , Tavormina MGM 122 , Theodorakis PN 123 , Tohen M 124 , Tsapakis EM 125 , Tukhvatullina D 126 , Ullah I 127 , Vaidya R 128 , Vega-Dienstmaier JM 129 , Vukovic O 130 , Vysotska O 131 , Widiasih N 31 , Yashikhina A 132 , Smirnova D 132

Affiliations 

  • 1 3rd Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Greece, Thessaloniki, Greece
  • 2 Riga Centre of Psychiatry and Addiction Disorders, Latvia. Electronic address: vrublevskaja@inbox.lv
  • 3 Pennine Care NHS Foundation Trust, United Kingdom; Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom; Core Psychiatry Training, Health Education England North West, United Kingdom. Electronic address: seri.abraham@nhs.net
  • 4 Department of Psychiatry, Ludiwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany. Electronic address: Kristina.Adorjan@med.uni-muenchen.de
  • 5 Child Adolescent and Family Psychiatry, National Institute of Mental Health, Dhaka, Bangladesh
  • 6 Section of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Facultad de Medicina Alberto Hurtado, Lima, Peru; Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, Mayo Clinic School of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA. Electronic address: renato.alarcon@upch.pe
  • 7 School of Medicine and Health Science, Institute of Health Science Shinshu University, Matsumoto, Japan. Electronic address: k_arai@shinshu-u.ac.jp
  • 8 Department of Psychiatry, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria; Aminu Kano Teaching Hospital, Kano, Nigeria
  • 9 IMPACT - the Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, Deakin University, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia; Orygen The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Centre for Youth Mental Health, Florey Institute for Neuroscience and Mental Health and the Department of Psychiatry, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia. Electronic address: michael.berk@deakin.edu.au
  • 10 Department of Psychiatry and Psychological Medicine, University Hospital Centre Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
  • 11 Psychiatry Area, Department of Medicine, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain; Department of Psychiatry, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias, Oviedo, Spain. Electronic address: bobes@uniovi.es
  • 12 Mental Health Center of La Corredoria, Oviedo, Spain; Department of Psychology, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain. Electronic address: bobesmaria@uniovi.es
  • 13 Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, Groupe Hospitalier Nord Essonne, Orsay, France
  • 14 Department of Neuroscience, Discipline of Psychiatry, "Victor Babes" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Timisoara, Romania
  • 15 Clinic of Psychiatry, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Medical Faculty, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania
  • 16 Mental Hub, Tbilisi, Georgia; NGO Healthcare Research and Quality Agency, Tbilisi, Georgia
  • 17 Hospital San Juan de Dios Hospital, Guadalajara, Mexico
  • 18 Janssen Research and Development, Johnson & Johnson, American Society of Hispanic Psychiatry and WARMI Women Mental Health, Cincinnati, OH, USA. Electronic address: rcastil4@its.jnj.com
  • 19 Institute of Translational and Cognitive Neuroscience (INCyT), INECO Foundation, Favaloro University, Buenos Aires, Argentina; National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina. Electronic address: mcetkovich@ineco.org.ar
  • 20 APM Board Certified in General Psychiatry and Neurology, Addiction Psychiatry, & Addiction Medicine, UPMC, DDAP, Philadelphia, USA
  • 21 Department of Teaching and Research, Hospital Borda, Buenos Aires, Argentina; University of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
  • 22 Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Clínica AngloAmericana, Lima, Peru. Electronic address: carla.cortez.v@upch.pe
  • 23 Sanitaire and Social Union for Accompaniment and Prevention, Center of Ambulatory Psychiatry of Narbonne and Lezigan, Narbonne, France
  • 24 Department of Mental Health, Psychiatric Service of Diagnosis and Treatment, Hospital "G. Mazzini", ASL Teramo, Teramo, Italy; School of Nursing, University of L'Aquila, Italy; Department of Neuroscience and Imaging, School of Psychiatry, University of Chieti, Chieti, Italy. Electronic address: domenico.deberardis@aslteramo.it
  • 25 Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Department, Hospital Luis Calvo Mackenna, Santiago, Chile. Electronic address: szamora@calvomackenna.cl
  • 26 Departamento de Fisiología e Farmacología, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil. Electronic address: alienista@ufc.br
  • 27 Department of Psychiatry, Lokmanya Tilak Municipal Medical College, Mumbai, India; Desousa Foundation, Mumbai, India
  • 28 Department of Biotechnological and Applied Clinical Sciences, Section of Psychiatry, University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy
  • 29 IMPACT - the Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, Deakin University, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia; Orygen The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Centre for Youth Mental Health, Florey Institute for Neuroscience and Mental Health and the Department of Psychiatry, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia; University Hospital Geelong, Barwon Health, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
  • 30 Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
  • 31 Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Indonesia, Cipto Mangunkusumo National Referral Hospital, Jakarta, Indonesia
  • 32 Psychiatry Department, Ankara Dışkapı Training and Research Hospital, Ankara, Turkey; Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, the Netherlands
  • 33 Faculty of Psychology, University of Buenos Aires (UBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina
  • 34 Department of Psychiatry, Ludiwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany. Electronic address: Peter.Falkai@med.uni-muenchen.de
  • 35 Centre of Neuroscience, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada. Electronic address: 6amf@queensu.ca
  • 36 Department of Psychiatry and Narcology, Ryazan State Medical University n.a. academician I.P. Pavlov, Ryazan, Russia
  • 37 State Budgetary Institution of the Rostov Region "Psychoneurological Dispensary", Rostov-on-Don, Russia
  • 38 Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Sofia, Bulgaria
  • 39 Medical Psychology, Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy Department, Bogomolets National Medical University, Kyiv, Ukraine
  • 40 "Villa dei Pini" Psychiatric Rehabilitation Center, Avellino, Italy; Psychiatric Studies Centre, Provaglio d'Iseo, Italy
  • 41 Hospital Magalhães Lemos, Porto, Portugal
  • 42 Department of Psychiatry, Medical Psychology and Drug Abuse, Kyrgyz State Medical Academy, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic
  • 43 Faculty of Psychology, University of Buenos Aires (UBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina. Electronic address: cristiangaray@psi.uba.ar
  • 44 Department of Psychology, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
  • 45 Psychiatry Area, Department of Medicine, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain; Mental Health Center of La Ería, Oviedo, Spain. Electronic address: albert@uniovi.es
  • 46 Specialty Training Section, Polish Psychiatric Association, Wroclaw, Poland
  • 47 Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón De la Fuente Muñiz, Mexico City, Mexico
  • 48 Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, San Diego, USA. Electronic address: hgould@health.ucsd.edu
  • 49 Department of Mental Health, Psychiatric Service of Diagnosis and Treatment, Hospital "G. Mazzini", ASL Teramo, Teramo, Italy
  • 50 Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Department, Hospital Luis Calvo Mackenna, Santiago, Chile; Universidad Diego Portales, Santiago, Chile
  • 51 Department of Diagnostic Imaging, University Hospital Saint Ekaterina, Sofia, Bulgaria
  • 52 Forensic Psychiatry Unit, Abarbanel Mental Health Center, Israel
  • 53 Faculty of Human Sciences, Education Bureau of the Laboratory Schools, University of Tsukuba, Tokyo, Japan
  • 54 Department of Primary Care & Mental Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom; Public Health Foundation, Dhaka, Bangladesh
  • 55 Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Sungai Buloh, Selangor, Malaysia. Electronic address: azreen@uitm.edu.my
  • 56 Department of Public Health & Informatics, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka, Bangladesh. Electronic address: sahadat.hossain@juniv.edu
  • 57 Second Psychiatric Clinic, University Hospital for Active Treatment in Neurology and Psychiatry "Saint Naum", Sofia, Bulgaria
  • 58 Okasha Institute of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
  • 59 Department of Psychiatry, Queens University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada. Electronic address: iftenef@providencecare.ca
  • 60 Education Center, Mental Health Clinic No 1 n.a. N.A. Alexeev of Moscow Healthcare Department, Moscow, Russia
  • 61 Ministry of Health, Millenium Institute for Research in Depression and Personality, Santiago, Chile. Electronic address: matias.irarrazaval@minsal.cl
  • 62 Department of Public Health Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Sungai Buloh, Selangor, Malaysia. Electronic address: zaliha78@uitm.edu.my
  • 63 National Mental Health Center of the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Azerbaijan, Baku, Azerbaijan
  • 64 Department of Psychiatry, Westchester Medical Center Health System, Valhalla, NY, USA; New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY, USA
  • 65 School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
  • 66 Institute of Applied Health Research, University of Birmingham, United Kingdom; Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, United Kingdom; Pakistan Psychiatric Research Centre, Fountain House, Lahore, Pakistan
  • 67 Child Psychiatry Department, Ankara City Hospital, Ankara, Turkey
  • 68 Department of Psychiatry, Lokmanya Tilak Municipal Medical College, Mumbai, India
  • 69 Faculty of Medicine, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden
  • 70 Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, San Diego, USA. Electronic address: shkoh@ucsd.edu
  • 71 Psychiatry, Drug abuse and Psychology Department, Odessa National Medical University, Odessa, Ukraine
  • 72 Occupational & Environmental Health Sector, Public Health Policy, Greece
  • 73 Desousa Foundation, Mumbai, India
  • 74 Department of Psychiatry, SKIMS Medical College, Srinagar, India
  • 75 Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, Groupe Hospitalier Nord Essonne, Orsay, France. Electronic address: e.malashonkova@gh-nord-essonne.fr
  • 76 Department of Psychology, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan. Electronic address: Najma.iqbal@uos.edu.pk
  • 77 Department of Psychiatry, Azerbaijan Medical University, Baku, Azerbaijan
  • 78 Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Section of Psychiatry, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy; Unicamillus, Saint Camillus International University of Health Sciences, Rome, Italy; Brain Research Foundation onus, Lucca, Italy. Electronic address: dmarazzi@psico.med.unipi.it
  • 79 Department of Psychiatry and Psychological Medicine, University Hospital Centre Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia; School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia. Electronic address: predstojnik.psi@kbc-zagreb.hr
  • 80 Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, San Diego, USA. Electronic address: stm032@health.ucsd.edu
  • 81 Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, San Diego, USA. Electronic address: ggmejia@health.ucsd.edu
  • 82 Dow Medical College, Dow University of Health Sciences, Karachi, Pakistan
  • 83 Postgraduate Program in Psychiatry, National Autonomous University of Honduras, Tegucigalpa, Honduras
  • 84 Private outpatient clinics "JSC InMedica klinika", Vilnius, Lithuania
  • 85 Department of Psychiatry, Queens University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada. Electronic address: roumen.milev@queensu.ca
  • 86 Department of Clinical Services, Federal Neuropsychiatric Hospital, Kaduna, Nigeria
  • 87 General Office for the Psychiatric Services of the Ministry of Health, Mexico City, Mexico
  • 88 Department of Postgraduate Education, Russian National Research Medical University n.a. N.I. Pirogov, Moscow, Russia
  • 89 Department of Community Medicine, Ahmadu Bello University Teaching Hospital, Zaria, Nigeria
  • 90 Sackler School of Medicine New York State American Program, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv-Yafo, Israel. Electronic address: Mikanaor@mail.tau.ac.il
  • 91 Clinic of Psychiatry, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Medical Faculty, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania. Electronic address: alvydas.navickas@mf.vu.lt
  • 92 Compartment of Liaison Psychiatry, "Pius Brinzeu" County Emergency Clinical Hospital, Timisoara, Romania
  • 93 Department of Medical Psychology, Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Kyrgyz-Russian Slavic University, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic
  • 94 Department of Neuroscience, Discipline of Psychiatry, "Victor Babes" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Timisoara, Romania. Electronic address: papava.ion@umft.ro
  • 95 School of Social Sciences, Hellenic Open University, Patras, Greece; Department of Internal Medicine, Nicosia General Hospital, Nicosia, Cyprus
  • 96 Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia; Clinical Department for Crisis and Affective Disorders, Institute of Mental Health, Belgrade, Serbia
  • 97 South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom; Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom; Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
  • 98 Department of the Introduction to Internal Medicine and Family Medicine, International Higher School of Medicine, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic
  • 99 Abarbanel Mental Health Center, Bat-Yam, Israel
  • 100 Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Sungai Buloh, Selangor, Malaysia. Electronic address: norjannah@uitm.edu.my
  • 101 Department of Psychiatry and Narcology, Riga Stradins University, Riga, Latvia. Electronic address: erancans@latnet.lv
  • 102 Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Sungai Buloh, Selangor, Malaysia. Electronic address: drsalmi@uitm.edu.my
  • 103 Servicio de Emergencia, Acute inpatient Unit, Hospital Moyano, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Argentine Institute of Clinical Psychiatry (IAPC), Buenos Aires, Argentina
  • 104 General Psychiatry Unit I, Greater Poland Neuropsychiatric Center, Kościan, Poland
  • 105 Department of Psychiatry, National Autonomous University of Honduras, Tegucigalpa, Honduras. Electronic address: elena.reyes@unah.edu.hn
  • 106 Centro de Investigación en Salud Pública, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de San Martín de Porres, Instituto Nacional de Salud Mental "Honorio Delgado - Hideyo Noguchi", Lima, Peru. Electronic address: mriverae@usmp.pe
  • 107 Psychiatry Area, Department of Medicine, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain; Mental Health Center of La Corredoria, Oviedo, Spain. Electronic address: frank@uniovi.es
  • 108 Faculty of Health Sciences, Anahuac University, Mexico City, Mexico
  • 109 Department of Psychiatry, Escuela Nacional de Medicina, TEC de Monterrey, Servicio de geriatría, Hospital Universitario "José Eleuterio González" UANL, Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
  • 110 Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Sungai Buloh, Selangor, Malaysia. Electronic address: annejosaw@uitm.edu.my
  • 111 Cognitive Science and Artificial Intelligence Department Tilburg University, the Netherlands
  • 112 Klinik für Allgemeine Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie Ost, Psychiatrische Institutsambulanz, Klinikum am Weissenhof, Weissenhof, Germany. Electronic address: p.schneidereit@klinikum-weissenhof.de
  • 113 DY Patil Medical College, Navi Mumbai, India
  • 114 Department of Psychiatry, Teine Keijinkai Medical Center, Sapporo, Japan
  • 115 Mental Hub, Tbilisi, Georgia
  • 116 Psychiatric Unit, Pambalah Batung General Hospital, South Kalimantan, Amuntai, Indonesia
  • 117 Department of Psychiatry and Medical Psychology, Belarusian State Medical University, Minsk, Belarus
  • 118 Saint Petersburg Psychoneurological Dispensary No2, Saint Petersburg, Russia
  • 119 Derbyshire Healthcare NHS Foundation Trust, The Liasion Team, Royal Derby Hospital, Derby, Derbyshire, United Kingdom. Electronic address: sridevi.siramahalingappa@nhs.net
  • 120 Department of Psychiatric Rehabilitation, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Faculty of Medical Sciences in Katowice, Medical University of Silesia, Poland
  • 121 Psychiatric Studies Centre, Provaglio d'Iseo, Italy; European Depression Association and Italian Association on Depression, Brussels, Belgium; Bedforshire Center for Mental Health Research in association with the University of Cambridge, United Kingdom
  • 122 Psychiatric Studies Centre, Provaglio d'Iseo, Italy
  • 123 Health Policy, WHO Regional Office for Europe, Denmark. Electronic address: theodorakisp@who.int
  • 124 Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, School of Medicine, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA. Electronic address: mtohen@salud.unm.edu
  • 125 "Agios Charalambos" Mental Health Clinic, Heraklion, Crete, Greece; 1st Department of Academic Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece. Electronic address: emtsapakis@doctors.org.uk
  • 126 Kabir Medical College, Gandhara University, Peshawar, Pakistan. Electronic address: d.tukhvatullina@smd20.qmul.ac.uk
  • 127 Kabir Medical College, Gandhara University, Peshawar, Pakistan
  • 128 Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom. Electronic address: r.vaidya@newcastle.ac.uk
  • 129 Facultad de Medicina Alberto Hurtado, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru. Electronic address: johann.vega.d@upch.pe
  • 130 Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia; Department for Research and Education, Institute of Mental Health, Belgrade, Serbia
  • 131 Educational and Research Center - Ukrainian Family Medicine Training Center, Bogomolets National Medical University, Kyiv, Ukraine
  • 132 International Centre for Education and Research in Neuropsychiatry (ICERN), Samara State Medical University, Samara, Russia; Department of Psychiatry, Narcology, Psychotherapy and Clinical Psychology, Samara State Medical University, Samara, Russia
J Affect Disord, 2024 May 01;352:536-551.
PMID: 38382816 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2024.02.050

Abstract

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic has brought significant mental health challenges, particularly for vulnerable populations, including non-binary gender individuals. The COMET international study aimed to investigate specific risk factors for clinical depression or distress during the pandemic, also in these special populations.

METHODS: Chi-square tests were used for initial screening to select only those variables which would show an initial significance. Risk Ratios (RR) were calculated, and a Multiple Backward Stepwise Linear Regression Analysis (MBSLRA) was followed with those variables given significant results at screening and with the presence of distress or depression or the lack of both of them.

RESULTS: The most important risk factors for depression were female (RR = 1.59-5.49) and non-binary gender (RR = 1.56-7.41), unemployment (RR = 1.41-6.57), not working during lockdowns (RR = 1.43-5.79), bad general health (RR = 2.74-9.98), chronic somatic disorder (RR = 1.22-5.57), history of mental disorders (depression RR = 2.31-9.47; suicide attempt RR = 2.33-9.75; psychosis RR = 2.14-10.08; Bipolar disorder RR = 2.75-12.86), smoking status (RR = 1.15-5.31) and substance use (RR = 1.77-8.01). The risk factors for distress or depression that survived MBSLRA were younger age, being widowed, living alone, bad general health, being a carer, chronic somatic disorder, not working during lockdowns, being single, self-reported history of depression, bipolar disorder, self-harm, suicide attempts and of other mental disorders, smoking, alcohol, and substance use.

CONCLUSIONS: Targeted preventive interventions are crucial to safeguard the mental health of vulnerable groups, emphasizing the importance of diverse samples in future research.

LIMITATIONS: Online data collection may have resulted in the underrepresentation of certain population groups.

* Title and MeSH Headings from MEDLINE®/PubMed®, a database of the U.S. National Library of Medicine.

MeSH terms
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