METHODS: Using data from 12 microsatellite loci, we assessed the genetic diversity and genetic/geographic structure for 353 cempedak and 175 bangkong accessions from Malaysia and neighboring countries and employed clonal analysis to characterize cempedak cultivars. We conducted haplotype network analyses on the trnH-psbA region in a subset of these samples. We also analyzed key vegetative characters that reportedly differentiate cempedak and bangkong.
KEY RESULTS: We show that cempedak and bangkong are sister taxa and distinct genetically and morphologically, but the directionality of domestication origin is unclear. Genetic diversity was generally higher in bangkong than in cempedak. We found a distinct genetic cluster for cempedak from Borneo as compared to cempedak from Peninsular Malaysia. Finally, cempedak cultivars with the same names did not always share the same genetic fingerprint.
CONCLUSIONS: Cempedak origins are complex, with likely admixture and hybridization with bangkong, warranting further investigation. We provide a baseline of genetic diversity of cempedak and bangkong in Malaysia and found that germplasm collections in Malaysia represent diverse coverage of the four cempedak genetic clusters detected.
METHODS: Chemotaxis was evaluated using a modified Boyden chamber and phagocytosis was determined by flowcytometer. Respiratory burst was investigated by luminol-based chemiluminescence assay while MPO activity was determined by colorimetric assay.
KEY FINDINGS: Artocarpanone and artocarpin strongly inhibited all steps of phagocytosis. Artocarpanone and artocarpin showed strong chemotactic activity with IC50 values of 6.96 and 6.10 μm, respectively, which were lower than that of ibuprofen (7.37 μm). Artocarpanone was the most potent compound in inhibiting ROS production of polymorphonuclear leucocytes and monocytes with IC50 values comparable to those of aspirin. Artocarpin at 100 μg/ml inhibited phagocytosis of opsonized bacteria (28.3%). It also strongly inhibited MPO release with an IC50 value (23.3 μm) lower than that of indomethacin (69 μm). Structure-activity analysis indicated that the number of hydroxyl group, the presence of prenyl group and variation of C-2 and C-3 bonds might contribute towards their phagocytosis.
CONCLUSIONS: Artocarpanone and artocarpin were able to suppress strongly the phagocytosis of human phagocytes at different steps and have potential to be developed into potent anti-inflammatory agents.
METHODS: The parameters of spray-dried 'cempedak' fruit powder under study include inlet air temperature (140-180°C) and maltodextrin (DE 10) concentrations (5-15% w/w). Response surface methodology involving 14 runs was used to assess the effects of inlet temperature and maltodextrin on the powder flow properties and reconstitution properties of the spray-dried 'cempedak' powder.
RESULTS: Out of the tested responses, only bulk density, change in cake height ratio, and water solubility index had a high coefficient of determination value. Inlet air temperature was found to be the main parameter to affect the bulk density, caking and water solubility index, when compared to maltodextrin concentration. By setting minimization of caking and maximization of water solubility index as the main determinants, the optimal parameters of 160°C inlet temperature and 15% (w/w) maltodextrin DE10 were generated, with a desirability of 0.697.
CONCLUSIONS: The powder produced under optimal conditions (160°C and 15% w/w maltodextrin) had a low bulk density (480.01 kg/m3), low caking properties (0.17 change in cake height ratio), and a high solubility index (88.69). This indicates that the powder is stable to be stored (without caking) and will have good reconstitution when added to water.