METHODS: In vitro antioxidant activity was investigated using 2,2'-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP), and 2,2-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) methods. The antidiabetic and dermatoprotective effects were studied using enzyme inhibitory activities.

RESULTS: Antioxidant tests showed that PLEO has the best activity (ranging from 29.64 ± 3.04 to 73.80 ± 3.96 µg/mL) compared to its main selected molecules (ranging from 74 ± 3.72 to 107.23 ± 5.03 µg/mL). The α-glucosidase and α-amylase assays demonstrated that the elements tested have a promising antidiabetic potential with IC50values ranging from 78.03 ± 2.31 to 116.03 ± 7.42 µg/mL and 74.39 ± 3.08 to 112.35 ± 4.92 µg/mL for the α-glucosidase and α-amylase assays, respectively, compared to the standard drug. For the tyrosinase test, we found that the EOs (IC50 = 57.72 ± 2.86 µg/mL) followed by limonene (IC50 = 74.24 ± 2.06 µg/mL) and α-pinene (IC50 = 97.45 ± 5.22 µg/mL) all exhibited greater inhibitory effects than quercetin (IC50 = 246.90 ± 2.54 µg/mL).

METHODOLOGY: We conducted a bibliographic search of PubMed, Scopus and Google Scholar using the following keywords: "medication adherence," "drug compliance," "DMTAC" and "Malaysia." The search covered all publications up to 31 December 2021. Eligible articles were original studies conducted in Malaysia that measured or quantified medication adherence among persons with T2DM.

RESULTS: We identified 64 eligible studies published between 2008 to 2021. Most studies included patients with T2DM in ambulatory facilities. Five studies were qualitative research. The quantitative research publications included clinical trials, and cross-sectional, validation, retrospective and prospective cohort studies. Thirty-eight studies used medication adherence scales. The Morisky Medication Adherence Scale (MMAS-8, used in 20 studies) and Malaysian Medication Adherence Scale (MALMAS, used in 6 studies) were the most commonly used tools. There were 6 validation studies with 4 medication adherence scales. A meta-analysis of 10 studies using MMAS-8 or MALMAS revealed that the pooled prevalence of low medication adherence is 34.2% (95% CI: 27.4 to 41.2, random effects model). Eighteen publications evaluated various aspects of the Diabetes Medication Therapy Adherence Clinics (DMTAC).

AIM: To evaluate the impact of a Ramadan-focused diabetes education programme on hypoglycaemic risk and other clinical and metabolic parameters.

METHODS: A systematic literature search was performed using Scopus, PubMed, Embase, and Google Scholar to identify relevant studies meeting the inclusion criteria from inception. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement and guidelines were followed when performing the search and identification of appropriate studies.

RESULTS: Seventeen studies were included in this systemic review; five of them met the criteria to compile for a meta-analysis. The included studies were with various study designs, including randomised controlled trials, quasi-experimental and non-randomised studies. Overall, the results revealed a significant reduction of hypoglycemia risk (81% reduction) for fasting patients in intervention groups who received Ramadan-focused education compared with patients receiving conventional care (OR 0.19, 95% CI: 0.08-0.46). Moreover, HbA1c significantly improved amongst patients who received a Ramadan-focused diabetes education intervention, compared with those receiving conventional care.