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  1. Fulltext Some new theoretical work on Half Butterfly Method for Hamiltonian circuit in complete graph
    Maizon Mohd Darus, Haslinda Ibrahim, Sharmila Karim
    MATEMATIKA, 2017;33(1):113-118.
    MyJurnal
    A new method to construct the distinct Hamiltonian circuits in complete
    graphs is called Half Butterfly Method. The Half Butterfly Method used the concept
    of isomorphism in developing the distinct Hamiltonian circuits. Thus some theoretical
    works are presented throughout developing this method.
    Matched MeSH terms: Butterflies
  2. Fulltext Monitoring butterflies using counts of puddling males: A case study of the Rajah Brooke's Birdwing (Trogonoptera brookiana albescens)
    Phon CK, Kirton LG, Norma-Rashid Y
    PLoS One, 2017;12(12):e0189450.
    PMID: 29232405 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0189450
    The Rajah Brooke's Birdwing, Trogonoptera brookiana, is a large, iconic butterfly that is facing heavy commercial exploitation and habitat loss. Males of some subspecies exhibit puddling behavior. A method of conservation monitoring was developed for subspecies albescens in Ulu Geroh, Peninsular Malaysia, where the males consistently puddle in single-species aggregations at stable geothermal springs, reaching well over 300 individuals when the population is at its highest. Digital photography was used to conduct counts of numbers of males puddling. The numbers of birdwings puddling were significantly correlated with counts of birdwings in flight, but were much higher. The numbers puddling during the peak hour were correlated with numbers puddling throughout the day and could be predicted using the numbers puddling at an alternative hour, enabling flexibility in the time of counts. Average counts for three images taken at each puddle at three peak hours between 1400-1600 hours over 2-3 days were used as a monthly population index. The numbers puddling were positively associated with higher relative humidity and brightness during monitoring hours. Monthly counts of birdwings from monitoring of puddles over a period of two years are presented. The minimum effort required for a monitoring program using counts of puddling males is discussed, as well as the potential of using the method to monitor other species of puddling butterflies.
    Matched MeSH terms: Butterflies*
  3. Agroforestry orchards support greater butterfly diversity than monoculture plantations in the tropics
    Wan Zaki WM, Yahya MS, Norhisham AR, Sanusi R, van der Meer PJ, Azhar B
    Oecologia, 2023 Mar;201(3):863-875.
    PMID: 36914820 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-023-05348-3
    Large-scale deforestation in the tropics, triggered by logging and subsequent agricultural monoculture has a significant adverse impact on biodiversity due to habitat degradation. Here, we measured the diversity of butterfly species in three agricultural landscapes, agroforestry orchards, oil palm, and rubber tree plantations. Butterfly species were counted at 127 sampling points over the course of a year using the point count method. We found that agroforestry orchards supported a greater number of butterfly species (74 species) compared to rubber tree (61 species) and oil palm plantations (54 species) which were dominated by generalist (73%) followed by forest specialists (27%). We found no significant difference of butterfly species composition between agroforestry orchards and rubber tree plantation, with both habitats associated with more butterfly species compared to oil palm plantations. This indicates butterflies were able to persist better in certain agricultural landscapes. GLMMs suggested that tree height, undergrowth coverage and height, and elevation determined butterfly diversity. Butterfly species richness was also influenced by season and landscape-level variables such as proximity to forest, mean NDVI, and habitat. Understanding the factors that contributed to butterfly species richness in an agroecosystem, stakeholders should consider management practices to improve biodiversity conservation such as ground vegetation management and retaining adjacent forest areas to enhance butterfly species richness. Furthermore, our findings suggest that agroforestry system should be considered to enhance biodiversity in agricultural landscapes.
    Matched MeSH terms: Butterflies*
  4. Two centuries of biodiversity discovery and loss in Singapore
    Chisholm RA, Kristensen NP, Rheindt FE, Chong KY, Ascher JS, Lim KKP, et al.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2023 Dec 19;120(51):e2309034120.
    PMID: 38079550 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2309034120
    There is an urgent need for reliable data on the impacts of deforestation on tropical biodiversity. The city-state of Singapore has one of the most detailed biodiversity records in the tropics, dating back to the turn of the 19th century. In 1819, Singapore was almost entirely covered in primary forest, but this has since been largely cleared. We compiled more than 200 y of records for 10 major taxonomic groups in Singapore (>50,000 individual records; >3,000 species), and we estimated extinction rates using recently developed and novel statistical models that account for "dark extinctions," i.e., extinctions of undiscovered species. The estimated overall extinction rate was 37% (95% CI [31 to 42%]). Extrapolating our Singapore observations to a future business-as-usual deforestation scenario for Southeast Asia suggests that 18% (95% CI [16 to 22%]) of species will be lost regionally by 2100. Our extinction estimates for Singapore and Southeast Asia are a factor of two lower than previous estimates that also attempted to account for dark extinctions. However, we caution that particular groups such as large mammals, forest-dependent birds, orchids, and butterflies are disproportionately vulnerable.
    Matched MeSH terms: Butterflies*
  5. Fulltext Building a DNA barcode reference library for the true butterflies (Lepidoptera) of Peninsula Malaysia: what about the subspecies?
    Wilson JJ, Sing KW, Sofian-Azirun M
    PLoS One, 2013;8(11):e79969.
    PMID: 24282514 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0079969
    The objective of this study was to build a DNA barcode reference library for the true butterflies of Peninsula Malaysia and assess the value of attaching subspecies names to DNA barcode records. A new DNA barcode library was constructed with butterflies from the Museum of Zoology, University of Malaya collection. The library was analysed in conjunction with publicly available DNA barcodes from other Asia-Pacific localities to test the ability of the DNA barcodes to discriminate species and subspecies. Analyses confirmed the capacity of the new DNA barcode reference library to distinguish the vast majority of species (92%) and revealed that most subspecies possessed unique DNA barcodes (84%). In some cases conspecific subspecies exhibited genetic distances between their DNA barcodes that are typically seen between species, and these were often taxa that have previously been regarded as full species. Subspecies designations as shorthand for geographically and morphologically differentiated groups provide a useful heuristic for assessing how such groups correlate with clustering patterns of DNA barcodes, especially as the number of DNA barcodes per species in reference libraries increases. Our study demonstrates the value in attaching subspecies names to DNA barcode records as they can reveal a history of taxonomic concepts and expose important units of biodiversity.
    Matched MeSH terms: Butterflies/anatomy & histology; Butterflies/genetics*
  6. Fulltext Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) associated with pig carrions in Malaysia
    Heo, Chong Chin, Mohamad Abdullah Marwi, Jeffery, John, Sofian-azirun, M., Chen, Chee Dhang, Wan Omar Abdullah, et al.
    Jurnal Sains Kesihatan Malaysia, 2010;8(1):1-4.
    MyJurnal
    An entomological study was conducted in Tanjung Sepat, Selangor, Malaysia in May until September 2007 revealing five species of butterflies (all from family Nymphalidae) were attracted to pig carcasses placed in an oil palm plantation. Euploea mulciber (Cramer 1777), Hypolimnas bolina (Linnaeus 1758), Elymnias hypermnestra (Linnaeus 1763), Mycalesis mineus (Linnaeus 1758) and Ypthima baldus (Fabricius 1775) came to the carcasses at different stages of decomposition. From this study, we know that nymphalid butterflies are attracted to carcasses but their roles are most probably unimportant in post-mortem estimation.
    Matched MeSH terms: Butterflies
  7. Optimization of Resistance Load in 4T-Static Random-Access Memory Cell Based on Silicon Nanowire Transistor
    Hashim Y
    J Nanosci Nanotechnol, 2018 Feb 01;18(2):1199-1201.
    PMID: 29448557 DOI: 10.1166/jnn.2018.13956
    This study explores optimization of resistance load (R-Load) of four silicon nanowire transistor (SiNWT)-based static random-access memory (SRAM) cell. Noise margins and inflection voltage of butterfly characteristics with static power consumption of SRAM cell are used as limiting factors in this optimization. Range of R-Load used in this study was 20-1000 KΩ with Vdd = 1 V. Results indicate that optimization depends critically on resistance load value. The optimized range of R-Load is 100-200 KΩ.
    Matched MeSH terms: Butterflies
  8. Proximate composition and energetic value of selected marine fish and shellfish from the West coast of Peninsular Malaysia
    International Food Research Journal, 2011;18(1):137-148.
    MyJurnal
    This study was conducted to determine the proximate composition and energetic value of selected marine fish and shellfish from the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia. This study has included 20 species of fish (10 pelagic fish and 10 demersal fish) and 4 species of shellfish. For pelagic fish, Longtail shad (terubuk) was found to contain significantly lower moisture (59.31+0.00%), but significantly higher fat content (23.15+0.00%) compared to other fish species. For demersal fish, moisture and ash contents ranged between 74-82%, and 0.9-2.1%, respectively. Long-tailed butterfly ray contained the highest protein (22.22+1.24%) compared to other fish studied. The highest fat content of demersal fish was in Moonfish at 6.89+2.76%. For shellfish, prawn contained the highest protein (19.12+1.44%). The fat content of shellfish ranged between 1-2%. Oyster contained significantly higher carbohydrate at 6.45+0.00%, compared to other shellfish. Longtail shad contained the highest energetic value of 13.34 kJ g-1 of all samples. These values are useful references for consumers in order to choose fish and shellfish based on their nutritional contents.
    Matched MeSH terms: Butterflies
  9. Pattern of Cortical Fracture following Corticotomy for Distraction Osteogenesis
    Luvan M, Kanthan SR, Roshan G, Saw A
    Malays Orthop J, 2015 Nov;9(3):35-39.
    PMID: 28611907 MyJurnal DOI: 10.5704/MOJ.1511.005
    Corticotomy is an essential procedure for deformity correction and there are many techniques described. However there is no proper classification of the fracture pattern resulting from corticotomies to enable any studies to be conducted. We performed a retrospective study of corticotomy fracture patterns in 44 patients (34 tibias and 10 femurs) performed for various indications. We identified four distinct fracture patterns, Type I through IV classification based on the fracture propagation following percutaneous corticotomy. Type I transverse fracture, Type II transverse fracture with a winglet, Type III presence of butterfly fragment and Type IV fracture propagation to a fixation point. No significant correlation was noted between the fracture pattern and the underlying pathology or region of corticotomy.
    Matched MeSH terms: Butterflies
  10. DNA barcodes and citizen science provoke a diversity reappraisal for the "ring" butterflies of Peninsular Malaysia (Ypthima: Satyrinae: Nymphalidae: Lepidoptera)
    Jisming-See SW, Sing KW, Wilson JJ
    Genome, 2016 Oct;59(10):879-888.
    PMID: 27333330 DOI: 10.1139/gen-2015-0156
    The "rings" belonging to the genus Ypthima are amongst the most common butterflies in Peninsular Malaysia. However, the species can be difficult to tell apart, with keys relying on minor and often non-discrete ring characters found on the hindwing. Seven species have been reported from Peninsular Malaysia, but this is thought to be an underestimate of diversity. DNA barcodes of 165 individuals, and wing and genital morphology, were examined to reappraise species diversity of this genus in Peninsular Malaysia. DNA barcodes collected during citizen science projects-School Butterfly Project and Peninsular Malaysia Butterfly Count-recently conducted in Peninsular Malaysia were included. The new DNA barcodes formed six groups with different Barcode Index Numbers (BINs) representing four species reported in Peninsular Malaysia. When combined with public DNA barcodes from the Barcode Of Life Datasystems, several taxonomic issues arose. We consider the taxon Y. newboldi, formerly treated as a subspecies of Y. baldus, as a distinct species. DNA barcodes also supported an earlier suggestion that Y. nebulosa is a synonym under Y. horsfieldii humei. Two BINs of the genus Ypthima comprising DNA barcodes collected during citizen science projects did not correspond to any species previously reported in Peninsular Malaysia.
    Matched MeSH terms: Butterflies
  11. Fulltext Inferring the provenance of an alien species with DNA barcodes: the neotropical butterfly Dryas iulia in Thailand
    Burg NA, Pradhan A, Gonzalez RM, Morban EZ, Zhen EW, Sakchoowong W, et al.
    PLoS One, 2014;9(8):e104076.
    PMID: 25119899 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0104076
    The Neotropical butterfly Dryas iulia has been collected from several locations in Thailand and Malaysia since 2007, and has been observed breeding in the wild, using introduced Passiflora foetida as a larval host plant. The butterfly is bred by a butterfly house in Phuket, Thailand, for release at weddings and Buddhist ceremonies, and we hypothesized that this butterfly house was the source of wild, Thai individuals. We compared wing patterns and COI barcodes from two, wild Thai populations with individuals obtained from this butterfly house. All Thai individuals resemble the subspecies D. iulia modesta, and barcodes from wild and captive Thai specimens were identical. This unique, Thai barcode was not found in any of the 30 specimens sampled from the wild in the species' native range, but is most similar to specimens from Costa Rica, where many exporting butterfly farms are located. These data implicate the butterfly house as the source of Thailand's wild D. iulia populations, which are currently so widespread that eradication efforts are unlikely to be successful.
    Matched MeSH terms: Butterflies/classification; Butterflies/genetics*
  12. Fulltext Rapidly shifting sex ratio across a species range
    Hornett EA, Charlat S, Wedell N, Jiggins CD, Hurst GD
    Curr Biol, 2009 Oct 13;19(19):1628-31.
    PMID: 19747825 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2009.07.071
    Sex ratios are subject to distortion by a range of inherited parasites. Although it has been predicted that the presence of these elements will result in spatial and temporal variation in host sex ratio, testing of this hypothesis has been constrained by availability of historical data. We here determine spatial and temporal variation in sex ratio in a interaction between a butterfly and male-killing Wolbachia bacteria by assaying infection presence in museum specimens, and from this inferring infection prevalence and phenotype in historical populations. Comparison of contemporary and museum samples revealed profound change in four of five populations examined. Two populations become extremely female biased, associated with spread of the male-killer bacterium. One evolved from extremely female biased to a sex ratio near parity, resulting from the infection losing male-killing activity. The final population fluctuated widely in sex ratio, associated with varying frequency of the male killer. We conclude that asynchronous invasion and decline of sex-ratio distorters combines with the evolution of host suppressors to produce a rapidly changing mosaic of sex ratio. As a consequence, the reproductive ecology of the host species is likely to be fundamentally altered over short time scales. Further, the study demonstrates the utility of museum specimens as "silent witnesses" of evolutionary change.
    Matched MeSH terms: Butterflies/genetics; Butterflies/parasitology*
  13. Fulltext Unique wing scale photonics of male Rajah Brooke's birdwing butterflies
    Wilts BD, Giraldo MA, Stavenga DG
    Front. Zool., 2016;13:36.
    PMID: 27525030 DOI: 10.1186/s12983-016-0168-7
    BACKGROUND: Ultrastructures in butterfly wing scales can take many shapes, resulting in the often striking coloration of many butterflies due to interference of light. The plethora of coloration mechanisms is dazzling, but often only single mechanisms are described for specific animals.

    RESULTS: We have here investigated the male Rajah Brooke's birdwing, Trogonoptera brookiana, a large butterfly from Malaysia, which is marked by striking, colorful wing patterns. The dorsal side is decorated with large, iridescent green patterning, while the ventral side of the wings is primarily brown-black with small white, blue and green patches on the hindwings. Dense arrays of red hairs, creating a distinct collar as well as contrasting areas ventrally around the thorax, enhance the butterfly's beauty. The remarkable coloration is realized by a diverse number of intricate and complicated nanostructures in the hairs as well as the wing scales. The red collar hairs contain a broad-band absorbing pigment as well as UV-reflecting multilayers resembling the photonic structures of Morpho butterflies; the white wing patches consist of scales with prominent thin film reflectors; the blue patches have scales with ridge multilayers and these scales also have centrally concentrated melanin. The green wing areas consist of strongly curved scales, which possess a uniquely arranged photonic structure consisting of multilayers and melanin baffles that produces highly directional reflections.

    CONCLUSION: Rajah Brooke's birdwing employs a variety of structural and pigmentary coloration mechanisms to achieve its stunning optical appearance. The intriguing usage of order and disorder in related photonic structures in the butterfly wing scales may inspire novel optical materials as well as investigations into the development of these nanostructures in vivo.

    Matched MeSH terms: Butterflies
  14. First Report of Liposcelis bostrychophila Badonnel (Psocoptera: Liposcelidae) as a museum insect pest in Malaysia
    Heo CC, Hidayatulfathi Othman, Nazni Wasi Ahmad, Heah SK, Lee HL, Jeffery J, et al.
    Sains Malaysiana, 2010;39:315-320.
    This paper reports the infestation of psocid, Liposcelis bostrychophila Badonnel (Psocoptera: Liposcelidae) in the insect museum at Medical Entomology Unit, Institute for Medical Research, Kuala Lumpur. These tiny organisms were recognised as museum insect pest and found frequently in the insect boxes containing mosquitoes, flies, cockroaches and butterflies. They feed on dead insect specimens and cause severe physical damages to the valuable reference specimens collected in the early 20th century. Hence, it is important to control their population immediately to prevent them from causing further deterioration to the museum collection.
    Matched MeSH terms: Butterflies
  15. Fulltext Conspectus of flora, fauna and micro-climate data in Tasik Kenyir from Mac 2015-February 2016
    Afiq Ramlee MN, Hussin MF, Roslan A, Rosmidi FH, Pesiu E, Aisyah A Rahim N, et al.
    Data Brief, 2020 Apr;29:105328.
    PMID: 32181296 DOI: 10.1016/j.dib.2020.105328
    This data article presents the diversity of flora and selected fauna in Tasik Kenyir, Malaysia. This man-made lake once suffered huge loss of biodiversity for allowing an earth-dam construction during 1980s. Series of publications on different types of target taxa have been published separately after the post-dam construction. A biodiversity assessment was conducted in Tasik Kenyir from March 2015 until February 2016. The one year assessment were compiled with the previous published data to document and updated the biodiversity checklist in the lake. The data show that Tasik Kenyir is occupied by 113 tree species, 217 butterfly species, 35 bee species, 26 reptile species, 267 aves species and 153 mammal species. The micro-climate data was downloaded from the Malaysian Meteorological Department and analysed in R Studio to highlight the relationship between climate data and biodiversity data.
    Matched MeSH terms: Butterflies
  16. Fulltext Cholesterol and alpha-tocopherol contents of fish and other seafood from the Straits of Malacca
    Azrina, A., Abd Aziz, N., Khoo, H. E., Amin, I., Al-Sheraji, S. H., Muhammad Rizal, R.
    International Food Research Journal, 2015;22(4):1494-1500.
    MyJurnal
    This study was conducted to determine the cholesterol and alpha-tocopherol contents of 20 marine fish and four other seafood from the Straits of Malacca. Cholesterol and alphatocopherol contents of the fish and other seafood were determined using high-performance liquid chromatography. The results showed that most of the fish contained low amounts of cholesterol, except sixbar grouper (Epinephelus fasciatus), long-tailed butterfly ray (Gymnura sp.), yellowstripe scad (Selaroides leptolepis), cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis), large-scale tongue sole (Cynoglossus arel), and longtail shad (Hilsa macrura) that contained high amounts of cholesterol (119.39-353.97 mg/100 g wet samples). Indian mackerel (Rastrelliger kanagurta), giant seaperch (Lates calcarifer), prawn (Metapenaeus affinis), and moonfish (Trachinotus blochii) had high alpha-tocopherol contents (462-989 μg/100 g wet sample). Regular consumption of fish and other seafood is highly recommended partly due to the high alphatocopherol content. Due to the high cholesterol in certain types of fish, consumption of the fish fillets of sixbar grouper, long-tailed butterfly ray, yellowstripe scad, cuttlefish, and large scale tongue sole should be < 100 g per day and < 50 per day for longtail shad. Validation of the analytical method also showed a high accuracy and reproducibility of the HPLC method.
    Matched MeSH terms: Butterflies
  17. Fulltext Different ommochrome pigment mixtures enable sexually dimorphic Batesian mimicry in disjunct populations of the common palmfly butterfly, Elymnias hypermnestra
    Panettieri S, Gjinaj E, John G, Lohman DJ
    PLoS One, 2018;13(9):e0202465.
    PMID: 30208047 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0202465
    With varied, brightly patterned wings, butterflies have been the focus of much work on the evolution and development of phenotypic novelty. However, the chemical structures of wing pigments from few butterfly species have been identified. We characterized the orange wing pigments of female Elymnias hypermnestra butterflies (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Satyrinae) from two Southeast Asian populations. This species is a sexually dimorphic Batesian mimic of several model species. Females are polymorphic: in some populations, females are dark, resemble conspecific males, and mimic Euploea spp. In other populations, females differ from males and mimic orange Danaus spp. Using LC-MS/MS, we identified nine ommochrome pigments: six from a population in Chiang Mai, Thailand, and five compounds from a population in Bali, Indonesia. Two ommochromes were found in both populations, and only two of the nine compounds have been previously reported. The sexually dimorphic Thai and Balinese populations are separated spatially by monomorphic populations in peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, and Sumatra, suggesting independent evolution of mimetic female wing pigments in these disjunct populations. These results indicate that other butterfly wing pigments remain to be discovered.
    Matched MeSH terms: Butterflies
  18. Fulltext Natural Loss of eyeless/Pax6 Expression in Eyes of Bicyclus anynana Adult Butterflies Likely Leads to Exponential Decrease of Eye Fluorescence in Transgenics
    Das Gupta M, Chan SK, Monteiro A
    PLoS One, 2015;10(7):e0132882.
    PMID: 26173066 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0132882
    Commonly used visible markers for transgenesis use fluorescent proteins expressed at the surface of the body, such as in eyes. One commonly used marker is the 3xP3-EGFP cassette containing synthetic binding sites for the eyeless/Pax6 conserved transcription factor. This marker cassette leads to fluorescent eyes in a variety of animals tested so far. Here we show that upon reaching adulthood, transgenic Bicyclus anynana butterflies containing this marker cassette exponentially loose fluorescence in their eyes. After 12 days, transgenic individuals are no longer distinguishable from wild type individuals. The decreased eye fluorescence is likely due to significantly decreased or halted eyeless/Pax6 expression observed in wild type animals upon adult emergence. Implications from these findings include care in screening transgenic animals before these reach adulthood, or shortly thereafter, and in using adult animals of the same age for quantitative screening of likely homozygote and heterozygote individuals.
    Matched MeSH terms: Butterflies/metabolism*
  19. Extraction methods of butterfly pea (Clitoria ternatea) flower and biological activities of its phytochemicals
    Jeyaraj EJ, Lim YY, Choo WS
    J Food Sci Technol, 2021 Jun;58(6):2054-2067.
    PMID: 33967304 DOI: 10.1007/s13197-020-04745-3
    Clitoria ternatea or commonly known as 'Butterfly pea' has been used traditionally in Ayurvedic medicine in which various parts of the plants are used to treat health issues such as indigestion, constipation, arthritis, skin diseases, liver and intestinal problems. The flowers of C. ternatea are used worldwide as ornamental flowers and traditionally used as a food colorant. This paper reviews the recent advances in the extraction and biological activities of phytochemicals from C. ternatea flowers. The application of maceration or ultrasound assisted extraction greatly increased the yield (16-247% of increase) of phytochemicals from C. ternatea flowers. Various phytochemicals such as kaempferol, quercetin and myricetin glycosides as well as anthocyanins have been isolated from C. ternatea flowers. Clitoria ternatea flower extracts were found to possess antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, cytotoxic and antidiabetic activities which are beneficial to human health. Clitoria ternatea flower is a promising candidate for functional food applications owing to its wide range of pharmacotherapeutic properties as well as its safety and effectiveness.
    Matched MeSH terms: Butterflies
  20. Fulltext Peptide toxin glacontryphan-M is present in the wings of the butterfly Hebomoia glaucippe (Linnaeus, 1758) (Lepidoptera: Pieridae)
    Bae N, Li L, Lödl M, Lubec G
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2012 Oct 30;109(44):17920-4.
    PMID: 23071323 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1209632109
    Protein profiling has revealed the presence of glacontryphan-M, a peptide toxin identified only in the sea snail genus Conus, in the wings of Hebomoia glaucippe (HG). The wings and body of HG were homogenized and the proteins were extracted and analyzed by 2D gel electrophoresis with subsequent in-gel digestion. Posttranslational protein modifications were detected and analyzed by nano-LC-MS/MS. An antibody was generated against glacontryphan-M, and protein extracts from the wings of HG samples from Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines were tested by immunoblotting. Glacontryphan-M was unambiguously identified in the wings of HG containing the following posttranslational protein modifications: monoglutamylation at E55, methylation at E53, quinone modification at W61, cyanylation at C56, and amidation of the C terminus at G63. Immunoblotting revealed the presence of the toxin in the wings of HG from all origins, showing a single band for glacontryphan-M in HG samples from Malaysia and Philippines and a double band in HG samples from Indonesia. Intriguingly, sequence analysis indicated that the Conus glacontryphan is identical to that of HG. The toxin may function as a defense against diverse predators, including ants, mantes, spiders, lizards, green frogs, and birds.
    Matched MeSH terms: Butterflies
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