Iron is an essential micronutrient for most living beings since it participates as a redox active cofactor in many biological processes including cellular respiration, lipid biosynthesis, DNA replication and repair, and ribosome biogenesis and recycling. However, when present in excess, iron can participate in Fenton reactions and generate reactive oxygen species that damage cells at the level of proteins, lipids and nucleic acids. Organisms have developed different molecular strategies to protect themselves against the harmful effects of high concentrations of iron. In the case of fungi and plants, detoxification mainly occurs by importing cytosolic iron into the vacuole through the Ccc1/VIT1 iron transporter. New sequenced genomes and bioinformatic tools are facilitating the functional characterization, evolution and ecological relevance of metabolic pathways and homeostatic networks across the Tree of Life. Sequence analysis shows that Ccc1/VIT1 homologs are widely distributed among organisms with the exception of animals. The recent elucidation of the crystal structure of a Ccc1/VIT1 plant ortholog has enabled the identification of both conserved and species-specific motifs required for its metal transport mechanism. Moreover, recent studies in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae have also revealed that multiple transcription factors including Yap5 and Msn2/Msn4 contribute to the expression of CCC1 in high-iron conditions. Interestingly, Malaysian S. cerevisiae strains express a partially functional Ccc1 protein that renders them sensitive to iron. Different regulatory mechanisms have been described for non-Saccharomycetaceae Ccc1 homologs. The characterization of Ccc1/VIT1 proteins is of high interest in the development of biofortified crops and the protection against microbial-derived diseases.
The tooth provides a non-shedding surface ideal for microbial and plaque accumulation. Despite being exposed to regular environmental perturbations, the microbial composition and proportions in the plaque often remains in homeostasis and is relatively stable over time. Supragingival plaque sampled from various sites on the tooth surface was pooled and conventionally analyzed for its microbial constituent. Classification of microbial isolates was made based on the characteristics exhibited by the growth colonies, Gram-stained cells, as well as biochemical reactions using the API Identification System kit. Observation was also made of the colony forming units on both non-selective and selective agar culture plates. A variety of bacteria, both of the facultative and anaerobic types, were isolated from the supragingival plaque of the Malaysian population. Among those found to predominate the supragingival plaque include the Gram positive and Gram negative cocci and rods from the genera Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Actinomyces, Fusobacterium, Corynebacterium, Clostridium, Bacteroides, Veilonella and Lactobacillus. In addition, yeast within the genus Candida was also isolated from the plaque samples.
Red pitaya juice (RPJ) was subjected to UV-C irradiation and the potential of UV as a pasteurization tool for reducing microbial load in pitaya juice was evaluated. Effectiveness of the hurdle concept, i.e. addition of citric acid (CA) and dimethyl dicarbonate (DMDC) was also studied. Total plate counts (TPC) and yeast and mould counts (YMC) achieved 2.43 log₁₀ and 2.7 log₁₀ reductions respectively after exposure to UV irradiation. Addition of the CA (0.5 - 2.0%) and dimethyl dicarbonate (DMDC) (5 - 20 µL/100mL) to pitaya juice reduced the microbial loads, with 1.5% CA and 15 µL/100mL DMDC being the most effective concentrations. Addition of CA and DMDC into RPJ prior to UV treatment achieved significantly higher microbial reduction compared to UV alone, which were 4.12 log ₁₀ and 4.14 log₁₀ reductions for TPC and for YMC, respectively.
Antifreeze proteins (AFPs) are specific proteins, glycopeptides, and peptides made by different organisms to allow cells to survive in sub-zero conditions. AFPs function by reducing the water's freezing point and avoiding ice crystals' growth in the frozen stage. Their capability in modifying ice growth leads to the stabilization of ice crystals within a given temperature range and the inhibition of ice recrystallization that decreases the drip loss during thawing. This review presents the potential applications of AFPs from different sources and types. AFPs can be found in diverse sources such as fish, yeast, plants, bacteria, and insects. Various sources reveal different α-helices and β-sheets structures. Recently, analysis of AFPs has been conducted through bioinformatics tools to analyze their functions within proper time. AFPs can be used widely in various aspects of application and have significant industrial functions, encompassing the enhancement of foods' freezing and liquefying properties, protection of frost plants, enhancement of ice cream's texture, cryosurgery, and cryopreservation of cells and tissues. In conclusion, these applications and physical properties of AFPs can be further explored to meet other industrial players. Designing the peptide-based AFP can also be done to subsequently improve its function.
In this study polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to identify yeast in domestic ragi obtained
from two local markets in Sarawak and Pahang. These ragi are normally used as a dry starter in food fermentation (tapai) for Pahang (ST2) and Sarawak (ST3) and tuak (ST1) which is an alcoholic drink in Sarawak. Universal primer, NL1 and NL4 were used as a primer in this study to amplify D1/D2 fragment. Based on the result from the sequencing and after the BLAST search of the nucleotide sequences, the strain was confirmed as Candida glabrata (FN424108.) partial 26S rRNA gene, strain IMUFRJ 51955 for ST1, Saccharomyces cerevisiae(EU285514.1) isolate 35 26S ribosomal RNA gene, partial sequence for ST2 sample and Candida glabrata (FN393990.1) partial 26S rRNA gene, strain MUCL 51244 for ST3. All these strains were found in domestic ragi used for food fermentation.
This study used a two-phase feeding trial to determine the influence of selected dietary prebiotics and probiotics on growth performance, feed utilisation, and morphological changes in snakehead (Channa striata) fingerlings as well as the duration of these effects over a post-experimental period without supplementation. Triplicate groups of fish (22.46 ±0.17 g) were raised on six different treatment diets: three prebiotics (0.2% β-glucan, 1% galacto-oligosaccharides [GOS], 0.5% mannan-oligosaccharides [MOS]), two probiotics (1% live yeast [Saccharomyces cerevisiae] and 0.01% Lactobacillus acidophilus [LBA] powder) and a control (unsupplemented) diet; there were three replicates for each treatment. All diets contained 40% crude protein and 12% crude lipid. Fish were fed to satiation three times daily. No mortalities were recorded during Phase 1; however, 14% mortality was documented in the control and prebiotic-amended fish during Phase 2. At the end of Phase 1, growth performance and feed utilisation were significantly higher (p<0.05) in the LBA-treated fish, followed by live yeast treatment, compared with all other diets tested. The performance of fish on the three prebiotic diets were not significantly different from one another but was significantly higher than the control diet. During Phase 2 (the post-feeding phase), fish growth continued until the 6th week for the probiotic-based diets but levelled off after four weeks for the fish fed the prebiotic diets. The feed conversion ratio (FCR) was higher in all treatments during the post-feeding period. The hepatosomatic index (HSI) did not differ significantly among the tested diets. The visceral somatic index (VSI) and intraperitoneal fat (IPF) were highest in the LBA-based diet and the control diet, respectively. The body indices were significantly different (p<0.05) between Phases 1 and 2. This study demonstrates that probiotic-based diets have a more positive influence on the growth, feed utilisation, and survival of C. striata fingerlings compared with supplementation with prebiotics.
Evaluation on the physicochemical and sensory properties of wheat flour doughnuts substituted with banana flour (BF) was investigated. Wheat flour was substituted with green banana (Musa paradisiaca var. Awak) flour at 0% (control), 10%, 20% and 30% levels in yeast-raised doughnut prepared by the straight dough method. Chemical (moisture, fat, protein, ash, carbohydrate, crude fibre, total dietary fibre and caloric content), physical (volume, specific volume and colour) and sensory evaluation were conducted on all samples. Chemical analyses result indicated a higher percentage of total dietary fibre and caloric content in doughnut substituted with BF than the control. Colour evaluation showed that the dough, crust and crumb of doughnut with BF ranged from 68.97 ± 0.59 – 84.78 ± 0.16 (red – yellow quadrant). The change from light to darker colour correlated with the amount of BF added. Results also showed that the volume and specific volume was significantly affected (p < 0.05) by levels of BF substituted. Doughnut substituted with 20% BF showed the highest score in overall acceptability (6.71 ± 1.40).
This study was performed to evaluate the antifungal activities of methanolic fractions from the stem bark of Entada spiralis Ridl. against human dermatophytes and yeast-like fungus in vitro. Three types of human dermatophyte, Trichophyton mentagrophytes ATCC 9533, Microsporum gypseum ATCC 24102 and Trichophyton tonsurans ATCC 28942, and one yeast-like fungus, Candida glabrata ATCC 66032, were tested against the methanolic fractions labelled FA1, FA4 and FA5. T. mentagrophytes, T. tonsuran and M. gypseum were susceptible to all tested fractions in a concentration-dependent manner whereas C. glabrata was resistant. Fraction FA1 at a concentration of 400 mg/mL was found to exhibit the highest antifungal activity with the inhibition zone diameter of 22 mm (T. mentagrophytes). This fraction showed a minimum inhibitory concentration MIC of 0.097 mg/mL while the MIC value for the fraction FA4 and fraction FA5 was 3.12 mg/ml and 1.56 mg/ml respectively. Agar overlay bioautography assay results showed that most of the bioactive compounds were found in the fraction FA1. Based on these findings, it can be concluded that the stem bark extracts of E. spiralis can be a future source of potent natural antimicrobial drugs for superficial skin diseases.
Cyclopoid copepod has a potential as live feed that can provide ornamental fish larvae with energy and essential nutrients, and promote their growth and survival, as well as affect their colouration. However, the nutrition, growth and nutritional requirements of this species are poorly understood. This research focuses on comparing the efficacy of enrichment types on copepods towards the growth rate, survival rate and colouration of Pterophyllum scalare larvae. The enrichment of copepods consists of four enrichment procedures (rice bran, palm kernel cake (PKC),Chlorella and yeast). This study was carried out over 50 days and the growth rate, survival rate and colouration (growth rate, survival rate, SGR and colouration) were used to evaluate the responses of P. scalare larvae towards different enrichment methods. Specific growth rates (8.0161 ± 1.4928 %; P = 0.775) and survival rates (66.667 ± 5.337%; P = 0.815) of fish larvae were found to not be significantly different (P = 0.775, P = 0.815; P >0.05). However, the colouration of the fish larvae was affected by the types of enrichment used (P
Introduction:Candida albicans is an opportunistic fungus that is associated with oral carcinogenesis. In addition, biofilm formation has been one of the important virulence factors of the yeast. Streptococcus salivarius K12 is an oral probiotic while Musa acuminata is a well-known prebiotic. The objective of this study is to investigate the effect of S. salivarius K12 and M. acuminata skin aqueous extract (synbiotic) on C. albicans with the hypothesis that S. salivariusK12 and M. acuminata inhibit C. albicans biofilm formation. Methods: To develop mono-species biofilm, C. albicans(ATCC MYA-4901 and cancer isolates, ALC2 and ALC3 strains) and S. salivarius K12 were standardised to 105 cells and 106 cells, respectively and grown in 96-well plate in nutrient broth (NB) or RPMI at 37 °C for 72 h. Polymicro-bial biofilms were developed by inoculating both microorganisms in the same well with similar cell number as in mono-species. To determine the effect of synbiotic, similar protocol was repeated by mixing with 800 mg mL-1 of M. acuminata skin extract and incubated at 37 °C for 72 h. The medium was replenished at every 24 h, aseptically. Finally, the biofilms were assessed using crystal violet assay and the optical density was measured at OD620nm. Results:C. albicans strain MYA-4901 and ALC3, when grown in polymicrobial with S. salivarius K12 in NB that is predominated by yeast-form C. albicans, exhibited decreased biofilms by 71.40±11.7% and 49.40±3.9%, respec-tively when compared to the expected biofilms. Meanwhile in RPMI, which C. albicans strain ATCC MYA-4901, ALC2 and ALC3 were predominated by hyphal-form showed decreased biofilms by 72.0±26.7%, 53.4±14.4% and 65.7±6.7%, respectively when compared to the expected biofilms. Conclusion:S. salivarius K12 and M. acuminata skin extract synbiotic inhibit biofilm formation of C. albicans yeast and hyphal forms thus supported the hypothesis of the present study.
Yeast producing alcohol dehydrogenase 1 (YADH 1) enzyme has been used as a biocatalyst for the synthesis of an optically active flavouring compound known as citronellol. However, the slow growth of yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) has deterred the progress of biotransformation. The main purpose of this work is to clone the genes producing YADH1 enzyme from yeast into a faster growing bacteria, Escherichia coli. Initially, the sequence of the gene encoding this protein has been identified in the S. cerevisiae Genome Databases (SGD). The so-called Yadh1 gene sequence is located from coordinate 159548 to 160594 on chromosome XV of yeast. Based on this information, two primer sequences (Forward and Reverse) were constructed. Each of these primers will bind to either end of the Yadh1 gene. The Yadh1 gene was then amplified using Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) technique. The amplified Yadh 1 gene was successfully cloned into a cloning vector, TOPO TA plasmid. This plasmid also contains a gene which confers resistance to ampicillin. This recombinant
plasmid was then inserted into Escherichia coli TOP 10 using heat shock protocol at 42oC. Finally, the cloned bacteria containing the recombinant TOPO TA plasmid harbouring Yadh1 gene was able to grow on Luria Bertani (LB) media supplied with antibiotic.
Results of a biodiversity study of Antarctic microfungi from ornithogenic soils are presented in this paper. A wide range of soil habitats within and adjacent to active and abandoned penguin rookeries were sampled in order to examine relationships between environmental factors and the biodiversity of soil microfungi. Soil samples were collected from two contrasting Antarctic locations: (1) Beaufort Island (Ross Sea, Continental Antarctica), which is largely ice- and snow-covered, isolated, difficult to access and infrequently visited, and (2) Barrientos Island (maritime Antarctica) which is mostly ice-free during summer and is often visited by scientists and tourists. Soil sampling at Beaufort and Barrientos Islands was completed during the austral summer seasons of 2004/05 and 2006/07, respectively. Warcup’s soil method was used for fungi cultivation. A total of 27 fungal taxa were isolated from the two study sites, consisting of 11 ascomycetes, 13 hyphomycetes
and three yeasts. Only three taxa — Geomyces sp., a pink and a white yeast — occurred on both sites. The isolated fungi were classified according to their thermal characteristics in culture, with seven psychrophilic, 10 psychrotrophic and 10 mesophilic fungi being isolated. Thelebolus microspores, Thelebolus sp., Geomyces sp. and Antarctomyces sp., were the most frequently isolated fungi. A total of 10 taxa were isolated from the 20 soil samples from Beaufort Island, consisting of five psychrophilic, four psychrotrophic and one mesophilic fungi. Thelebolus microsporus, Thelebolus sp., Asco BI8 and Phoma sp. were the most frequently obtained fungi
(20%–27% of isolates). A total of 22 fungal taxa were isolated from 23 soil samples from Barrientos Island, consisting of four psychrophilic, six psychrotrophic and 12 mesophilic fungi. Geomyces sp. and Antarctomyces sp. were the most frequently isolated taxa. Thus, the fungal diversity of Beaufort Island was dominated by Ascomycetes while that of Barrientos Island was dominated by hyphomycetes.
This study is conducted to investigate the effect of different concentrations of betel leaves extract on color, pH and microbiological in homemade chili bo. The homemade chili bo with different concentrations (0 mg/ml, 0.75 mg/ml, 1.25 mg/ml and 1.75 mg/ml) of betel leaves extract were prepared for analysis. The results showed that the color of chili bo became darker as the concentration of betel leaves extract increased. The extract showed significant in the pH of chili bo after 7 days in which the highest concentration of extract showed the highest value of pH 4.31. The aerobic microbial count was decreased as the concentration of betel leaves extract increased in chili bo. After 7 days of storage, the highest concentration of betel leaves extract showed the highest percentage of reduction (6%), while the control sample showed 2.41% of aerobic reduction. The study also found that the extract contain lesser yeast and mold count (5.22 log CFU/ml) in homemade chili bo compared to the control sample (5.31 log CFU/ml) after 7 days. Betel leaves extract can be considered as natural food preservatives in chili bo to reduce the growth of spoilage microorganism and thus enhance the shelf life of chili bo.
As fermentation could reduce the negative effects of bran on final cereal products, the utilization of whole-cereal flour is recommended, such as brown rice flour as a functional food ingredient. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effect of fermented brown rice flour on white rice flour, white rice batter and its steamed bread qualities. Brown rice batter was fermented using commercial baker's yeast (Eagle brand) according to the optimum conditions for moderate acidity (pH 5.5) to obtain fermented brown rice flour (FBRF). The FBRF was added to white rice flour at 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% levels to prepare steamed rice bread. Based on the sensory evaluation test, steamed rice bread containing 40% FBRF had the highest overall acceptability score. Thus, pasting properties of the composite rice flour, rheological properties of its batter, volume and texture properties of its steamed bread were determined. The results showed that peak viscosity of the rice flour containing 40% FBRF was significantly increased, whereas its breakdown, final viscosity and setback significantly decreased. Viscous, elastic and complex moduli of the batter having 40% FBRF were also significantly reduced. However, volume, specific volume, chewiness, resilience and cohesiveness of its steamed bread were significantly increased, while hardness and springiness significantly reduced in comparison to the control. These results established the effectiveness of yeast fermentation in reducing the detrimental effects of bran on the sensory properties of steamed white rice bread and encourage the usage of brown rice flour to enhance the quality of rice products.
Widespread food poisoning due to microbial contamination has been a major concern for the food industry, consumers and governing authorities. This study is designed to determine the levels of fungal contamination in edible bird nests (EBNs) using culture and molecular techniques. Raw EBNs were collected from five house farms, and commercial EBNs were purchased from five Chinese traditional medicine shops (companies A-E) in Peninsular Malaysia. The fungal contents in the raw and commercial EBNs, and boiled and unboiled EBNs were determined. Culturable fungi were isolated and identified. In this study, the use of these methods revealed that all EBNs had fungal colony-forming units (CFUs) that exceeded the limit set by Standards and Industrial Research Institute of Malaysia (SIRIM) for yeast and moulds in EBNs. There was a significant difference (p < 0.05) in the number of types of fungi isolated from raw and commercial EBNs, but no significant difference in the reduction of the number of types of fungi after boiling the EBNs (p > 0.05). The types of fungi isolated from the unboiled raw EBNs were mainly soil, plant and environmental fungi, while the types of fungi isolated from the boiled raw EBNs, unboiled and boiled commercial EBNs were mainly environmental fungi. Aspergillus sp., Candida sp., Cladosporium sp., Neurospora sp. and Penicillum sp. were the most common fungi isolated from the unboiled and boiled raw and commercial EBNs. Some of these fungi are mycotoxin producers and cause opportunistic infections in humans. Further studies to determine the mycotoxin levels and methods to prevent or remove these contaminations from EBNs for safe consumption are necessary. The establishment and implementation of stringent regulations for the standards of EBNs should be regularly updated and monitored to improve the quality of the EBNs and consumer safety.
Intestinal protozoa are increasingly being studied because of their association with acute and chronic diarrhoea in immunocompromised as well as immunocompetent patients. Various community outbreaks due to contamination of water or food with these protozoa have further highlighted their importance in public health. Among these important pathogens are Giardia duodenalis, Entamoeba histolytica, Cryptosporidium parvum, Cyclospora cayetanensis, Isospora belli, and microsporidia. Except for the cyst-forming G. duodenalis and E. histolytica, the others are intracellular and form spores which are passed out with the faeces. These organisms are also found in various animals and birds and zoonotic transmission is thought to occur. These infections are distributed worldwide, with a higher prevalence in developing compared to developed countries. However, the relative importance of zoonotic infections especially in developing countries has not been studied in detail. The prevalence rates are generally higher in immunodeficient compared to immunocompetent patients. Higher prevalence rates are also seen in rural compared to urban communities. Most studies on prevalence have been carried out in developed countries where the laboratory and other health infrastructure are more accessible than those in developing countries. This relative inadequacy of laboratory diagnosis can affect accurate estimates of the prevalence of these infections in developing countries. However, reports of these infections in travellers and workers returning from developing countries can provide some indication of the extent of these problems. Most studies on prevalence of amoebiasis in developing countries were based on morphological identification of the parasite in faecal smears. As the pathogenic E. histolytica is morphologically indistinguishable from that of non-pathogenic E. dispar, estimates of amoebiasis may not be accurate. The epidemiology of human microsporidia infections is not completely understood. Two species, Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Encephalitozoon intestinalis, are associated with gastrointestinal disease in humans and it is believed that human to human as well as animal to human infections occur. However, the importance of zoonotic infections has not been fully characterised. G. duodenalis cysts, microsporidia and Cryptosporidium oocysts have been detected in various ground water resources, but their role in community outbreaks and maintenance of the infection has not been fully characterised. The taxonomic classification and pathogenic potential of B. hominis are still controversial. While considered by many as yeast, fungi or protozoon, recent sequence analysis of the complete SSUrRNA gene has placed it within an informal group, the stramenopiles. This review covers recent published data on these zoonotic infections and examines their public health importance in Asian countries.
The objective of this study was to determine microbiological quality of gulai tempoyak paste (GTP) added with three different leaf; Vietnamese coriander, turmeric and asam gelugor. The GTP was cooked for 10 minutes with control temperature (60-70°C) and the leaf were added at 2, 5 and 8 minutes during the cooking time to give exposure times of 8, 5 and 2 minutes of the leaf to GTP. GTP without addition of leaf was treated as control and all the prepared GTPs were stored at 30°C for 2 days before analysed using total plate count (TPC) and yeast and mould count (YMC). The addition of asam gelugor leaf to GTP for 5 minutes of the cooking period significantly (p > 0.05) reduced TPC (log10 3.54 CFU/g) compared to Vietnamese coriander (log10 4.67 CFU/g) and turmeric leaf (log10 4.70 CFU/g). Asam gelugor leaf also showed a significant difference in TPC reduction (log10 4.44 CFU/g) when added to GTP for 8 minutes compared to Vietnamese coriander (log10 5.10 CFU/g), but was insignificant to turmeric leaf (log10 4.71 CFU/g). In conclusion, there are significant effects on microbiological quality of GTP when added with Vietnamese coriander, turmeric and asam gelugor leaf at different exposure time based on TPC and YMC.
Extremely low temperatures present various challenges to life that include ice formation and effects on metabolic capacity. Psyhcrophilic microorganisms typically have an array of mechanisms to enable survival in cold temperatures. In this study, we sequenced and analysed the genome of a psychrophilic yeast isolated in the Antarctic region, Glaciozyma antarctica. The genome annotation identified 7857 protein coding sequences. From the genome sequence analysis we were able to identify genes that encoded for proteins known to be associated with cold survival, in addition to annotating genes that are unique to G. antarctica. For genes that are known to be involved in cold adaptation such as anti-freeze proteins (AFPs), our gene expression analysis revealed that they were differentially transcribed over time and in response to different temperatures. This indicated the presence of an array of adaptation systems that can respond to a changing but persistent cold environment. We were also able to validate the activity of all the AFPs annotated where the recombinant AFPs demonstrated anti-freeze capacity. This work is an important foundation for further collective exploration into psychrophilic microbiology where among other potential, the genes unique to this species may represent a pool of novel mechanisms for cold survival.
A number of living creatures in the Antarctic region have developed characteristic adaptation of cold weather by producing antifreeze proteins (AFP). Antifreeze peptide (Afp1m) fragment have been designed in the sequence of strings from native proteins. The objectives of this study were to assess the properties of Afp1m to cryopreserve skin graft at the temperature of -10 °C and -20 °C and to assess sub-zero injuries in Afp1m cryopreserved skin graft using light microscopic techniques. In the present study, a process was developed to cryopreserve Sprague-Dawley (SD) rat skin grafts with antifreeze peptide, Afp1m, α-helix peptide fragment derived from Glaciozyma antractica yeast. Its viability assessed by different microscopic techniques. This study also described the damages caused by subzero temperatures (-10 and -20 °C) on tissue cryopreserved in different concentrations of Afp1m (0.5, 1, 2, 5 and 10 mg/mL) for 72 h. Histological scores of epidermis, dermis and hypodermis of cryopreserved skin grafts showed highly significant difference (p
Yeast growth and biomass production are greatly influenced by the length of the
incubation period during cultivation. Therefore, this study was conducted to
investigate the growth kinetics of five Lipomyces starkeyi strains as determined by
biomass production. The five L. starkeyi strains, namely L. starkeyi ATCC 12659, L.
starkeyi MV-1, L. starkeyi MV-4, L. starkeyi MV-5 and L. starkeyi MV-8, were inoculated
in sterilized Yeast Malt broth, and, incubated for 192 hr at ambient temperature.
Biomass yields were assessed and calculated gravimetrically every 24 hr. Results
indicated that the optimal biomass production of L. starkeyi ATCC 12659, L. starkeyi
MV-1, L. starkeyi MV-4, L. starkeyi MV-5 and L. starkeyi MV-8 were at 120, 168, 144,
168 and 120 hr, with the concentrations of 6.64, 6.43, 9.78, 11.23 and 8.56 g/L,
respectively. These results indicate that each L. starkeyi strain requires specific
incubation period for the optimum production of fungal biomass. Therefore, by
cultivating each L. starkeyi strain at the predetermined incubation period, biomass
yields could significantly be improved for further downstream applications such as
single cell protein and lipid production.