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  1. Fulltext The Missing Piece: Recent Approaches Investigating the Antimicrobial Mode of Action of Essential Oils
    Yang SK, Tan NP, Chong CW, Abushelaibi A, Lim SH, Lai KS
    Evol Bioinform Online, 2021;17:1176934320938391.
    PMID: 34017165 DOI: 10.1177/1176934320938391
    Antibiotic resistance is a major global health issue that has seen alarming rates of increase in all parts of the world over the past two decades. The surge in antibiotic resistance has resulted in longer hospital stays, higher medical costs, and elevated mortality rates. Constant attempts have been made to discover newer and more effective antimicrobials to reduce the severity of antibiotic resistance. Plant secondary metabolites, such as essential oils, have been the major focus due to their complexity and bioactive nature. However, the underlying mechanism of their antimicrobial effect remains largely unknown. Understanding the antimicrobial mode of action of essential oils is crucial in developing potential strategies for the use of essential oils in a clinical setting. Recent advances in genomics and proteomics have enhanced our understanding of the antimicrobial mode of action of essential oils. We might well be at the dawn of completing a mystery on how essential oils carry out their antimicrobial activities. Therefore, an overview of essential oils with regard to their antimicrobial activities and mode of action is discussed in this review. Recent approaches used in identifying the antimicrobial mode of action of essential oils, specifically from the perspective of genomics and proteomics, are also synthesized. Based on the information gathered from this review, we offer recommendations for future strategies and prospects for the study of essential oils and their function as antimicrobials.
    Matched MeSH terms: Anti-Infective Agents
  2. Thermoluminescence properties of the Cu-doped lithium potassium borate glass
    Aboud H, Wagiran H, Hussin R, Ali H, Alajerami Y, Saeed MA
    Appl Radiat Isot, 2014 Aug;90:35-9.
    PMID: 24681645 DOI: 10.1016/j.apradiso.2014.01.012
    Characteristics of lithium potassium borate glasses with various copper concentrations are reported. The glasses were prepared by the melt quenching method and irradiated with photons to doses in the 0.5-4.0 Gy range. Glowing curves, dose response curves, reproducibility of the response, dose threshold, thermal fading and optical bleaching were studied.
    Matched MeSH terms: Anti-Infective Agents
  3. Fulltext Prevalence of macrolide resistance and in vitro activities of six antimicrobial agents against clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae from a multi-center surveillance in Malaysia
    Jeevajothi Nathan J, Mohd Taib N, Mohd Desa MN, Masri SN, Md Yasin R, Jamal F, et al.
    Med J Malaysia, 2013 Apr;68(2):119-24.
    PMID: 23629556 MyJurnal
    The in vitro activities of 6 antimicrobial agents against clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococci) were investigated and the erythromycin minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were correlated with the two major macrolide resistance determinants, mef(A) and erm(B). MICs of commonly used antibiotics as well as the presence of macrolide resistance determinant genes in all isolates were tested. Seventy one pneumococcal isolates collected at Institute for Medical Research (IMR) were included in this study. Phenotypic characterization, MIC determination using E-test strips and polymerase chain reactions for antibiotic resistance determination were included. Among the isolates, 25 (35.2%) isolates were erythromycin susceptible, 3 (4.2%) were intermediate and 42 (60.6%) were resistant. Fifty three isolates (74.7%) were found with mef(A) alone, 15 (21.1%) isolates with erm(B) + mef(A) combination and 3 (4.2%) isolates with none of the two genes. The in vitro activity of penicillin, amoxicillin clavulanic acid, ceftriaxone and cefotaxime is superior to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and erythromycin. In conclusion, pneumococcal isolates in this study were highly susceptible to penicillin with very low MICs. However, a very high prevalence rate of erythromycin resistance was observed. Erythromycin resistant S. pneumoniae isolates with both mef(A) and erm(B) showed very high MICs ≥256 μg/mL.
    Matched MeSH terms: Anti-Infective Agents
  4. Biosynthesis and structural characterization of Ag nanoparticles from white rot fungi
    Chan YS, Mat Don M
    Mater Sci Eng C Mater Biol Appl, 2013 Jan 1;33(1):282-8.
    PMID: 25428073 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2012.08.041
    Five species of white rot fungi were screened for their capability to synthesize Ag nanoparticles (AgNPs). Three modes of AgNP bioreduction were developed. Pycnoporus sanguineus is found as a potential candidate for the synthesis of AgNPs with a yield at 98.9%. The synthesized AgNPs were characterized using UV-vis spectroscopy, DLS, FTIR, TEM, and SEM. Results showed that AgNP absorption band was located at a peak of 420 nm. Both the SEM and TEM confirmed that the formation of AgNPs were mainly spherical with average diameters of 52.8-103.3 nm. The signals of silver atoms' presence in the mycelium were observed by SEM-EDS spectrum.
    Matched MeSH terms: Anti-Infective Agents/metabolism; Anti-Infective Agents/pharmacology; Anti-Infective Agents/chemistry
  5. Design, synthesis, and evaluation of thiazolidinone derivatives as antimicrobial and anti-viral agents
    Ravichandran V, Jain A, Kumar KS, Rajak H, Agrawal RK
    Chem Biol Drug Des, 2011 Sep;78(3):464-70.
    PMID: 21615706 DOI: 10.1111/j.1747-0285.2011.01149.x
    A series of 1,3-thiazolidin-4-one derivatives were prepared by the reaction of respective aromatic amine, aromatic aldehyde, and thioglycolic acid in dry benzene/toluene. The newly synthesized compounds were characterized on the basis of elemental analysis, IR, (1) HNMR, and mass spectra. The newly synthesized final compounds were evaluated for their in vitro antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-viral activities. Preliminary results indicated that some of the compounds demonstrated antibacterial activity in the range of 7-13 μg/mL, antifungal activity in the range of 13-17 μg/mL, comparable with the standard drugs, ciprofloxacin and fluconazole. Structure-activity relationship studies revealed that the nature of the substituents at the 2 and 3 positions of the thiazolidinone nucleus had a significant impact on the in vitro antimicrobial and anti-viral activity of these classes of agents.
    Matched MeSH terms: Anti-Infective Agents/chemical synthesis; Anti-Infective Agents/pharmacology*; Anti-Infective Agents/chemistry*
  6. Antimicrobial activities and toxicity of crude extract of the Psophocarpus tetragonolobus pods
    Latha LY, Sasidharan S, Zuraini Z, Suryani S, Shirley L, Sangetha S, et al.
    Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med, 2006 Aug 28;4(1):59-63.
    PMID: 20162073
    The extract of the Psophocarpus tetragonolobus pods has been tested for antimicrobial activity in a disk diffusion assay on eight human pathogenic bacteria and two human pathogenic yeasts. The extracts of P. tetragonolobus possessed antimicrobial activity against all tested strains. The ethanolic extract of P. tetragonolobus pods was further tested for in vivo brine shrimp lethality test and in vitro sheep erythrocyte cytotoxic assay. The brine shrimp lethality test exhibited no significant toxicity (LC(50)=1.88 mg/ml) against Artemia salina, whereas sheep erythrocyte test showed significant toxicity. The reason for haemolysis of erythrocyte was discussed. The P. tetragonolobus extract with high LC(50) value signified that this plant is not toxic to human. This result also suggested that the ethanolic extract of P. tetragonolobus pods is potential source for novel antimicrobial compounds.
    Matched MeSH terms: Anti-Infective Agents
  7. Fulltext Flavonoid analyses and antimicrobial activity of various parts of Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl fruit
    Hendra R, Ahmad S, Sukari A, Shukor MY, Oskoueian E
    Int J Mol Sci, 2011;12(6):3422-31.
    PMID: 21747685 DOI: 10.3390/ijms12063422
    Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl (Thymelaceae) is commonly known as 'Crown of God', 'Mahkota Dewa', and 'Pau'. It originates from Papua Island, Indonesia and it grows in tropical areas. Empirically, it is potent in treating the hypertensive, diabetic, cancer and diuretic patients. It has a long history of ethnopharmacological usage, and the lack of information about its biological activities led us to investigate the possible biological activities by characterisation of flavonoids and antimicrobial activity of various part of P. macrocarpa against pathogenic bacteria and fungi. The results showed that kaempferol, myricetin, naringin, and rutin were the major flavonoids present in the pericarp while naringin and quercetin were found in the mesocarp and seed. Furthermore, the antibacterial activity of different parts of P. macrocarpa fruit showed a weak ability to moderate antibacterial activity against pathogenic tested bacteria (inhibition range: 0.93-2.17 cm) at concentration of 0.3 mg/disc. The anti fungi activity was only found in seed extract against Aspergillus niger (1.87 cm) at concentration of 0.3 mg/well. From the results obtained, P. macrocarpa fruit could be considered as a natural antimicrobial source due to the presence of flavonoid compounds.
    Matched MeSH terms: Anti-Infective Agents/isolation & purification; Anti-Infective Agents/pharmacology; Anti-Infective Agents/chemistry*
  8. Synthesis and antimicrobial properties of some new thiazolyl coumarin derivatives
    Arshad A, Osman H, Bagley MC, Lam CK, Mohamad S, Zahariluddin AS
    Eur J Med Chem, 2011 Sep;46(9):3788-94.
    PMID: 21712145 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2011.05.044
    Two novel series of hydrazinyl thiazolyl coumarin derivatives have been synthesized and fully characterized by IR, (1)H NMR, (13)C NMR, elemental analysis and mass spectral data. The structures of some compounds were further confirmed by X-ray crystallography. All of these derivatives, 10a-d and 15a-h, were screened in vitro for antimicrobial activity against various bacteria species including Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Candida albicans. The compounds 10c, 10d and 15e exhibited very good activities against all of the tested microbial strains.
    Matched MeSH terms: Anti-Infective Agents/chemical synthesis*; Anti-Infective Agents/pharmacology*; Anti-Infective Agents/chemistry
  9. Fulltext One pot light assisted green synthesis, storage and antimicrobial activity of dextran stabilized silver nanoparticles
    Hussain MA, Shah A, Jantan I, Tahir MN, Shah MR, Ahmed R, et al.
    J Nanobiotechnology, 2014;12:53.
    PMID: 25468206 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-014-0053-5
    Green synthesis of nanomaterials finds the edge over chemical methods due to its environmental compatibility. Herein, we report green synthesis of silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) mediated with dextran. Dextran was used as a stabilizer and capping agent to synthesize Ag NPs using silver nitrate (AgNO3) under diffused sunlight conditions.
    Matched MeSH terms: Anti-Infective Agents/chemical synthesis; Anti-Infective Agents/pharmacology*; Anti-Infective Agents/chemistry*
  10. Fulltext In vitro properties of designed antimicrobial peptides that exhibit potent antipneumococcal activity and produces synergism in combination with penicillin
    Le CF, Yusof MY, Hassan H, Sekaran SD
    Sci Rep, 2015;5:9761.
    PMID: 25985150 DOI: 10.1038/srep09761
    Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) represent a promising class of novel antimicrobial agents owing to their potent antimicrobial activity. In this study, two lead peptides from unrelated classes of AMPs were systematically hybridized into a series of five hybrid peptides (DM1-DM5) with conserved N- and C-termini. This approach allows sequence bridging of two highly dissimilar AMPs and enables sequence-activity relationship be detailed down to single amino acid level. Presence of specific amino acids and physicochemical properties were used to describe the antipneumococcal activity of these hybrids. Results obtained suggested that cell wall and/or membrane targeting could be the principal mechanism exerted by the hybrids leading to microbial cell killing. Moreover, the pneumocidal rate was greater than penicillin (PEN). Combination treatment with both DMs and PEN produced synergism. The hybrids were also broad spectrum against multiple common clinical bacteria. Sequence analysis showed that presence of specific residues has a major role in affecting the antimicrobial and cell toxicity of the hybrids than physicochemical properties. Future studies should continue to investigate the mechanisms of actions, in vivo therapeutic potential, and improve rational peptide design based on the current strategy.
    Matched MeSH terms: Anti-Infective Agents
  11. Medicinal uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of family Sterculiaceae: a review
    Al Muqarrabun LM, Ahmat N
    Eur J Med Chem, 2015 Mar 6;92:514-30.
    PMID: 25599949 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2015.01.026
    The family Sterculiaceae is one of the most important families among flowering plants. Many of its members demonstrate medicinal properties and have been used for the treatment of various ailments and wounds. A wide range of compounds including alkaloids, phenyl propanoids, flavonoids, terpenoids and other types of compounds including hydrocarbons, sugars, quinones, phenolic acids, lactones, lignans, amine and amides have been isolated from several species in this family. Few studies have reported that some extracts and single compounds isolated from this family exhibited several biological activities, such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and cytotoxic activities. The present review is an effort to provide information about the traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of species from family Sterculiaceae, and to uncover the gaps and potentials requiring further research opportunities regarding the chemistry and pharmacy of this family.
    Matched MeSH terms: Anti-Infective Agents/isolation & purification; Anti-Infective Agents/pharmacology*; Anti-Infective Agents/chemistry
  12. Fulltext Antibiotic management of complicated intra-abdominal infections in adults: The Asian perspective
    Kurup A, Liau KH, Ren J, Lu MC, Navarro NS, Farooka MW, et al.
    Ann Med Surg (Lond), 2014 Sep;3(3):85-91.
    PMID: 25568794 DOI: 10.1016/j.amsu.2014.06.005
    Regional epidemiological data and resistance profiles are essential for selecting appropriate antibiotic therapy for intra-abdominal infections (IAIs). However, such information may not be readily available in many areas of Asia and current international guidelines on antibiotic therapy for IAIs are for Western countries, with the most recent guidance for the Asian region dating from 2007. Therefore, the Asian Consensus Taskforce on Complicated Intra-Abdominal Infections (ACT-cIAI) was convened to develop updated recommendations for antibiotic management of complicated IAIs (cIAIs) in Asia. This review article is based on a thorough literature review of Asian and international publications related to clinical management, epidemiology, microbiology, and bacterial resistance patterns in cIAIs, combined with the expert consensus of the Taskforce members. The microbiological profiles of IAIs in the Asian region are outlined and compared with Western data, and the latest available data on antimicrobial resistance in key pathogens causing IAIs in Asia is presented. From this information, antimicrobial therapies suitable for treating cIAIs in patients in Asian settings are proposed in the hope that guidance relevant to Asian practices will prove beneficial to local physicians managing IAIs.
    Matched MeSH terms: Anti-Infective Agents
  13. Fulltext Antimicrobial, antibiofilm and antitumor activities of essential oil of Agastache rugosa from Xinjiang, China
    Haiyan G, Lijuan H, Shaoyu L, Chen Z, Ashraf MA
    Saudi J Biol Sci, 2016 Jul;23(4):524-30.
    PMID: 27298587 DOI: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2016.02.020
    In the study, we evaluated chemical composition and antimicrobial, antibiofilm, and antitumor activities of essential oils from dried leaf essential oil of leaf and flower of Agastache rugosa for the first time. Essential oil of leaf and flower was evaluated with GC and GC-MS methods, and the essential oil of flower revealed the presence of 21 components, whose major compounds were pulegone (34.1%), estragole (29.5%), and p-Menthan-3-one (19.2%). 26 components from essential oil of leaf were identified, the major compounds were p-Menthan-3-one (48.8%) and estragole (20.8%). At the same time, essential oil of leaf, there is a very effective antimicrobial activity with MIC ranging from 9.4 to 42 μg ml(-1) and potential antibiofilm, antitumor activities for essential oils of flower and leaf essential oil of leaf. The study highlighted the diversity in two different parts of A. rugosa grown in Xinjiang region and other places, which have different active constituents. Our results showed that this native plant may be a good candidate for further biological and pharmacological investigations.
    Matched MeSH terms: Anti-Infective Agents
  14. Fulltext Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl: From Traditional Usage to Pharmacological Evidence
    Liew PM, Yong YK
    Evid Based Complement Alternat Med, 2016;2016:7842340.
    PMID: 26925152 DOI: 10.1155/2016/7842340
    Introduction. Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl belongs to the family of Verbenaceae and is commonly known as Gervao, Brazilian tea, verbena cimarrona, rooter comb, or blue porter weed. It is one of the important plants with high medicinal and nutraceutical benefits. S. jamaicensis contains various medicinal properties in traditional and folk medicinal systems, with cures for several diseases. Objective. The objective of this review paper is to collect information concerning the morphology, distribution, traditional usage, phytochemical compositions, biological activities, and safety data of S. jamaicensis. Materials and Methods. The information was obtained from literature search through electronic databases such as PubMed and Google Scholar on S. jamaicensis. Results and Conclusion. The high medicinal properties of this plant, for instance, antimicrobial and antifungal effect as the main activities, but verbascoside as the main active chemical component, make it a valuable source of the medicinal compound. This review paper summarizes all information concerning the morphology, distribution, traditional usage, phytochemical compositions, pharmacological activities, and toxicological studies of S. jamaicensis.
    Matched MeSH terms: Anti-Infective Agents
  15. Antimicrobial activity of a quaternized BODIPY against Staphylococcus strains
    Aydın Tekdaş D, Viswanathan G, Zehra Topal S, Looi CY, Wong WF, Min Yi Tan G, et al.
    Org Biomol Chem, 2016 Mar 7;14(9):2665-70.
    PMID: 26831779 DOI: 10.1039/c5ob02477c
    A novel BODIPY derivative was designed for biomedical applications. Its mono-quaternized structure ensured its water-solubility and suitable amphiphilicity. Showing no singlet oxygen generation to avoid damage to healthy cells, this new derivative proved to be an extremely promising antimicrobial agent, with activity equal or superior to ampicillin against MRS Staphylococcus strains with no short-term resistance issue. Its activity against MSS Staphylococcus strains was largely superior to those of ampicillin and reached the activity of vancomycin against MSS S. epidermidis. This latter result is in particular extremely promising for the treatment of hospital-acquired infections. Also the fluorescence properties of BODIPY allowed imaging of the uptake.
    Matched MeSH terms: Anti-Infective Agents
  16. Fulltext Synthesis, Biological Evaluation and Molecular Docking Studies of 6-Aryl-2-Styrylquinazolin-4(3H)-Ones
    Agbo EN, Makhafola TJ, Choong YS, Mphahlele MJ, Ramasami P
    Molecules, 2015 Dec 25;21(1):E28.
    PMID: 26712730 DOI: 10.3390/molecules21010028
    Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling of 6-bromo-2-styrylquinazolin-4(3H)-ones with arylboronic acids afforded a series of novel 6-aryl-2-styrylquinazolin-4(3H)-ones. These compounds were evaluated for potential anticancer properties against the human renal (TK-10), melanoma (UACC-62) and breast cancer (MCF-7) cell lines. Their antimicrobial properties were also evaluated against six Gram-positive and four Gram-negative bacteria, as well as two strains of fungi. Molecular docking studies (in silico) were conducted on compounds 5a, b, d and 6a, b, d-f to recognize the hypothetical binding motif of the title compounds within the active site of the dihydrofolate reductase and thymidylate synthase enzymes.
    Matched MeSH terms: Anti-Infective Agents/chemical synthesis*; Anti-Infective Agents/pharmacology; Anti-Infective Agents/chemistry
  17. Fulltext Mangrove rare actinobacteria: taxonomy, natural compound, and discovery of bioactivity
    Azman AS, Othman I, Velu SS, Chan KG, Lee LH
    Front Microbiol, 2015;6:856.
    PMID: 26347734 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.00856
    Actinobacteria are one of the most important and efficient groups of natural metabolite producers. The genus Streptomyces have been recognized as prolific producers of useful natural compounds as they produced more than half of the naturally-occurring antibiotics isolated to-date and continue as the primary source of new bioactive compounds. Lately, Streptomyces groups isolated from different environments produced the same types of compound, possibly due to frequent genetic exchanges between species. As a result, there is a dramatic increase in demand to look for new compounds which have pharmacological properties from another group of Actinobacteria, known as rare actinobacteria; which is isolated from special environments such as mangrove. Recently, mangrove ecosystem is becoming a hot spot for studies of bioactivities and the discovery of natural products. Many novel compounds discovered from the novel rare actinobacteria have been proven as potential new drugs in medical and pharmaceutical industries such as antibiotics, antimicrobials, antibacterials, anticancer, and antifungals. This review article highlights the latest studies on the discovery of natural compounds from the novel mangrove rare actinobacteria and provides insight on the impact of these findings.
    Matched MeSH terms: Anti-Infective Agents
  18. Fulltext Povidone iodine in wound healing: A review of current concepts and practices
    Bigliardi PL, Alsagoff SAL, El-Kafrawi HY, Pyon JK, Wa CTC, Villa MA
    Int J Surg, 2017 Aug;44:260-268.
    PMID: 28648795 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijsu.2017.06.073
    BACKGROUND: Of the many antimicrobial agents available, iodophore-based formulations such as povidone iodine have remained popular after decades of use for antisepsis and wound healing applications due to their favorable efficacy and tolerability. Povidone iodine's broad spectrum of activity, ability to penetrate biofilms, lack of associated resistance, anti-inflammatory properties, low cytotoxicity and good tolerability have been cited as important factors, and no negative effect on wound healing has been observed in clinical practice. Over the past few decades, numerous reports on the use of povidone iodine have been published, however, many of these studies are of differing design, endpoints, and quality. More recent data clearly supports its use in wound healing.

    METHODS: Based on data collected through PubMed using specified search criteria based on above topics and clinical experience of the authors, this article will review preclinical and clinical safety and efficacy data on the use of povidone iodine in wound healing and its implications for the control of infection and inflammation, together with the authors' advice for the successful treatment of acute and chronic wounds.

    RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: Povidone iodine has many characteristics that position it extraordinarily well for wound healing, including its broad antimicrobial spectrum, lack of resistance, efficacy against biofilms, good tolerability and its effect on excessive inflammation. Due to its rapid, potent, broad-spectrum antimicrobial properties, and favorable risk/benefit profile, povidone iodine is expected to remain a highly effective treatment for acute and chronic wounds in the foreseeable future.

    Matched MeSH terms: Anti-Infective Agents, Local/therapeutic use*
  19. Fulltext Antimicrobial peptides as potential anti-biofilm agents against multidrug-resistant bacteria
    Chung PY, Khanum R
    J Microbiol Immunol Infect, 2017 Aug;50(4):405-410.
    PMID: 28690026 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmii.2016.12.005
    Bacterial resistance to commonly used drugs has become a global health problem, causing increased infection cases and mortality rate. One of the main virulence determinants in many bacterial infections is biofilm formation, which significantly increases bacterial resistance to antibiotics and innate host defence. In the search to address the chronic infections caused by biofilms, antimicrobial peptides (AMP) have been considered as potential alternative agents to conventional antibiotics. Although AMPs are commonly considered as the primitive mechanism of immunity and has been extensively studied in insects and non-vertebrate organisms, there is now increasing evidence that AMPs also play a crucial role in human immunity. AMPs have exhibited broad-spectrum activity against many strains of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including drug-resistant strains, and fungi. In addition, AMPs also showed synergy with classical antibiotics, neutralize toxins and are active in animal models. In this review, the important mechanisms of action and potential of AMPs in the eradication of biofilm formation in multidrug-resistant pathogen, with the goal of designing novel antimicrobial therapeutics, are discussed.
    Matched MeSH terms: Anti-Infective Agents/pharmacology*
  20. Fulltext In vitro Inhibitory Effects of Two Bornean Medicinal Wild Gingers against Pathogenic Lagenidium thermophilum Infected Mud Crab Scylla tranquebarica
    Hatai K, Kamada T, Lau LM, Kulip J, Phan CS, Vairappan CS
    Biocontrol Sci, 2018;23(1):35-39.
    PMID: 29576593 DOI: 10.4265/bio.23.35
    　The antifungal activity of two Bornean medicinal wild gingers Plagiostachys megacarpa and Zingiber phillippsiae were examined against Lagenidium thermophilum. The most active extract was P. megacarpa at concentration of 320 µg/mL inhibiting both hyphal growth and zoospore production of L. thermophilum in 24 h. Toxicity tests were conducted using mud crab (Scylla tranquebarica) larva. Bath treatment of P. megacarpa at concentrations of 320 and 640 µg/mL for 24 h were highly effective against hyphae and zoospores of the strain and it is non-toxic to mud crab larva. Therefore, crude extracts P. megacarpa may be used as alternative treatment for marine Oomycete infection of mud crab.
    Matched MeSH terms: Anti-Infective Agents/pharmacology*
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