METHODS: Using data from 12 microsatellite loci, we assessed the genetic diversity and genetic/geographic structure for 353 cempedak and 175 bangkong accessions from Malaysia and neighboring countries and employed clonal analysis to characterize cempedak cultivars. We conducted haplotype network analyses on the trnH-psbA region in a subset of these samples. We also analyzed key vegetative characters that reportedly differentiate cempedak and bangkong.
KEY RESULTS: We show that cempedak and bangkong are sister taxa and distinct genetically and morphologically, but the directionality of domestication origin is unclear. Genetic diversity was generally higher in bangkong than in cempedak. We found a distinct genetic cluster for cempedak from Borneo as compared to cempedak from Peninsular Malaysia. Finally, cempedak cultivars with the same names did not always share the same genetic fingerprint.
CONCLUSIONS: Cempedak origins are complex, with likely admixture and hybridization with bangkong, warranting further investigation. We provide a baseline of genetic diversity of cempedak and bangkong in Malaysia and found that germplasm collections in Malaysia represent diverse coverage of the four cempedak genetic clusters detected.
Methods: Faeces were collected under the roost ofE. spelaeaonce a week from December 2015 to March 2016. Plant DNA was extracted from the faeces, Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplified atITS2andrbcLregions and mass sequenced. The resultant plant operational taxonomic units were searched against NCBI GenBank for identification.
Results: A total of 55 species of plants were detected from faeces ofE. spelaeaincludingArtocarpus heterophyllus, Duabanga grandifloraandMusaspp. which are likely to be important food resources for the cave nectar bat.
Discussion: Many native plant species that had not been reported in previous dietary studies ofE. spelaeawere detected in this study includingBauhinia strychnoideaandUrophyllum leucophlaeum, suggesting thatE. spelaearemains a crucial pollinator for these plants even in highly disturbed habitats. The detection of many introduced plant species in the bat faeces indicates thatE. spelaeaare exploiting them, particularlyXanthostemon chrysanthus,as food resources in urban area. Commercial food crops were detected from all of the faecal samples, suggesting thatE. spelaeafeed predominantly on the crops particularly jackfruit and banana and play a significant role in pollination of economically important plants. Ferns and figs were also detected in the faeces ofE. spelaeasuggesting future research avenues to determine whether the 'specialised nectarivorous'E. spelaeafeed opportunistically on other parts of plants.
OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of four different polyols, namely, ethylene glycol, erythritol, xylitol and sorbitol on the acid-denatured states of CGB lectin.
METHODS: CGB lectin was subjected to acid denaturation at pH 2.5 and pH 1.5, both in the absence and presence of 30% (w/v) polyols, i.e. ethylene glycol, erythritol, xylitol and sorbitol. Thermal denaturation of the acid-denatured states was also studied in the absence and presence of these polyols. Different spectroscopic probes such as tryptophan fluorescence, ANS fluorescence and far-UV CD spectral signal were used to monitor structural changes in the acid-denatured states of CGB lectin in the presence of polyols.
RESULTS: Presence of erythritol, xylitol and sorbitol in the incubation mixture was found to stabilize the lectin at both pH 2.5 and pH 1.5, as evident from the burial of the hydrophobic clusters and decreased polarity around Trp residues. These polyols also stabilized the acid-denatured states of CGB lectin against thermal denaturation by shifting the thermal transition curves towards higher temperatures. Exposure of the acid-denatured states of CGB lectin, obtained at pH 2.5 and pH 1.5 to 61°C and 51°C, respectively, induced formation of non-native β-structures, compared to that present at 25°C, and this phenomenon was significantly suppressed in the presence of these polyols. Based on the spectral data, both sorbitol and erythritol appeared to exude better stabilizing effect. On the other hand, ethylene glycol was shown to destabilize the aciddenatured states of CGB lectin.
CONCLUSION: Thermal stabilization of the lectin was noticed in the presence of erythritol, xylitol and sorbitol at both pH 2.5 and pH 1.5. These polyols also stabilize the secondary and tertiary structures of the acid-denatured CGB lectin at 25°C. Ethylene glycol was proved to be a destabilizer of the acid-denatured CGB lectin.
METHODS: Chemotaxis was evaluated using a modified Boyden chamber and phagocytosis was determined by flowcytometer. Respiratory burst was investigated by luminol-based chemiluminescence assay while MPO activity was determined by colorimetric assay.
KEY FINDINGS: Artocarpanone and artocarpin strongly inhibited all steps of phagocytosis. Artocarpanone and artocarpin showed strong chemotactic activity with IC50 values of 6.96 and 6.10 μm, respectively, which were lower than that of ibuprofen (7.37 μm). Artocarpanone was the most potent compound in inhibiting ROS production of polymorphonuclear leucocytes and monocytes with IC50 values comparable to those of aspirin. Artocarpin at 100 μg/ml inhibited phagocytosis of opsonized bacteria (28.3%). It also strongly inhibited MPO release with an IC50 value (23.3 μm) lower than that of indomethacin (69 μm). Structure-activity analysis indicated that the number of hydroxyl group, the presence of prenyl group and variation of C-2 and C-3 bonds might contribute towards their phagocytosis.
CONCLUSIONS: Artocarpanone and artocarpin were able to suppress strongly the phagocytosis of human phagocytes at different steps and have potential to be developed into potent anti-inflammatory agents.