Displaying publications 21 - 40 of 68 in total

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  1. Fatty acid preference of mycelium-bound lipase from a locally isolated strain of Geotrichum candidum
    Loo JL, Lai OM, Long K, Ghazali HM
    World J Microbiol Biotechnol, 2007 Dec;23(12):1771-8.
    PMID: 27517833 DOI: 10.1007/s11274-007-9427-2
    Mycelium-bound lipase (MBL) was prepared using a strain of Geotrichum candidum isolated from local soil. At the time of maximum lipase activity (54 h), the mycelia to which the lipase was bound were harvested by filtration and centrifugation. Dry MBL was prepared by lyophilizing the mycelia obtained. The yield of MBL was 3.66 g/l with a protein content of 44.11 mg/g. The lipase activity and specific lipase activity were 22.59 and 510 U/g protein, respectively. The moisture content of the MBL was 3.85%. The activity of free (extracellular) lipase in the culture supernatant (after removal of mycelia) was less than 0.2 U/ml. The MBL showed selectivity for oleic acid over palmitic acid during hydrolysis of palm olein, indicating that the lipase from G. candidum displayed high substrate selectivity for unsaturated fatty acid containing a cis-9 double bond, even in crude form. This unique specificity of MBL could be a direct, simple and inexpensive way in the fats and oil industry for the selective hydrolysis or transesterification of cis-9 fatty acid residues in natural triacylglycerols.
  2. Fatty acid profile, minor bioactive constituents and physicochemical properties of insect-based oils: A comprehensive review
    Yap JW, Lee YY, Tang TK, Chong LC, Kuan CH, Lai OM, et al.
    Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr, 2023;63(21):5231-5246.
    PMID: 34913758 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2021.2015681
    Insect-based food or ingredients have received tremendous attention worldwide because of their potential to ensure food and nutrition security, mitigating the reliance on land-dependent agricultural products. Indeed, insect-farming has low environmental impacts with reduced land, water and energy input. More importantly, insects are rich in high quality proteins and fats. They are also excellent sources of minerals, vitamins and bioactive compounds. Insect-based lipids are intriguing because they may contain high levels of unsaturated fatty acids particularly linoleic and α-linolenic acids. Besides, the insect-based lipids also show a considerable amount of bioactive components such as tocols, sterols and carotenoids. However, their fatty acid compositions and the nutritional values may vary depending on species, feed composition, developmental stage, geographical locations, and extraction techniques. Therefore, the present article aims to provide a comprehensive review on the fatty acid composition, the minor bioactive constituents and the physicochemical properties of fats and oils derived from insects of different orders (Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Orthoptera, Hemiptera and Diptera). The various parameters affecting the nutritional compositions of the insect-based lipids will also be highlighted. These information will definitely provide a detailed insight on the potential applications of these fats in various food systems based on their unique properties.
  3. Fingerprinting of Phospholipid Molecular Species from Human Milk and Infant Formula Using HILIC-ESI-IT-TOF-MS and Discriminatory Analysis by Principal Component Analysis
    Jiang C, Ma B, Song S, Lai OM, Cheong LZ
    J Agric Food Chem, 2018 Jul 11;66(27):7131-7138.
    PMID: 29902005 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b01393
    Phospholipid composition in the milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) fluctuates during the entire lactation period in order to suit the growing needs of newborn infants. The present study elucidated and relatively quantified phospholipid molecular species extracted from human milk (HM), mature human milk (MHM), and infant formulas (with or without MFGM supplementation) using hydrophilic liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-ion trap-time of flight-mass spectrometry (HILIC-ESI-IT-TOF-MS) system. Principal component analysis was used to clarify the differences between phospholipid composition in HM, MHM, and infant formulas. HM and MHM contained high concentrations of sphingomyeline (HM: 107.61 μg/mL, MHM: 227.18 μg/mL), phosphatidylcholine (HM: 59.96 μg/mL, MHM: 50.77 μg/mL), and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) (HM: 25.24 μg/mL, MHM: 31.76 μg/mL). Significant concentrations (<300 ng/mL) of arachidonic, eicosapentanoic, and docosahexanoic acids were found to esterify to PE in HM and MHM. Meanwhile, all infant formulas were found to contain high concentrations of phosphatidic acids indicating the possibility of degradation of the fortified MFGM either during processing or storage of the infant formulas.
  4. Health benefits, enzymatic production, and application of medium- and long-chain triacylglycerol (MLCT) in food industries: a review
    Lee YY, Tang TK, Lai OM
    J Food Sci, 2012 Aug;77(8):R137-44.
    PMID: 22748075 DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2012.02793.x
    Medium- and long-chain triacylglycerol (MLCT) is a modified lipid containing medium- chain (C6-C12) and long-chain fatty acids (C14-C24) in the same triacylglycerol (TAG) molecule. It can be produced either through enzymatic (with 1,3 specific or nonspecific enzyme) or chemical methods. The specialty of this structured lipid is that it is metabolized differently compared to conventional fats and oils, which can lead to a reduction of fat accumulation in the body. Therefore, it can be used for obesity management. It also contains nutritional properties that can be used to treat metabolic problems. This review will discuss on the health benefits of MLCT, its production methods especially via enzymatic processes and its applications in food industries.
  5. Fulltext Impact of stirring speed on β-lactoglobulin fibril formation
    Ng SK, Nyam KL, Nehdi IA, Chong GH, Lai OM, Tan CP
    Food Sci Biotechnol, 2016;25(Suppl 1):15-21.
    PMID: 30263481 DOI: 10.1007/s10068-016-0093-8
    β-Lactoglobulin (β-lg) can produce fibrils that have multi-functional properties. Impacts of different stirring speeds on characteristics of β-lg fibrils as a stable form in β-lg fibril solutions were investigated. Fibril concentration, fibril morphology, turbidity, particle size distribution, zeta potential, and rheological behavior of solutions were studied. Stirring enhanced fibril formation and stability of a fibril solution, in comparison with unstirred solutions. Increasing the stirring speed produced more turbidity and a greater distribution of particle sizes, higher viscosity values, but no differences in zeta potential values of β-lg fibril solutions. However, a high stirring speed is not feasible due to reduction of the fibril yield and changes in fibril morphology.
  6. Fulltext Improvement of medium chain fatty acid content and antimicrobial activity of coconut oil via solid-state fermentation using a Malaysian Geotrichum candidum
    Khoramnia A, Ebrahimpour A, Ghanbari R, Ajdari Z, Lai OM
    Biomed Res Int, 2013;2013:954542.
    PMID: 23971051 DOI: 10.1155/2013/954542
    Coconut oil is a rich source of beneficial medium chain fatty acids (MCFAs) particularly lauric acid. In this study, the oil was modified into a value-added product using direct modification of substrate through fermentation (DIMOSFER) method. A coconut-based and coconut-oil-added solid-state cultivation using a Malaysian lipolytic Geotrichum candidum was used to convert the coconut oil into MCFAs-rich oil. Chemical characteristics of the modified coconut oils (MCOs) considering total medium chain glyceride esters were compared to those of the normal coconut oil using ELSD-RP-HPLC. Optimum amount of coconut oil hydrolysis was achieved at 29% moisture content and 10.14% oil content after 9 days of incubation, where the quantitative amounts of the modified coconut oil and MCFA were 0.330 mL/g of solid media (76.5% bioconversion) and 0.175 mL/g of solid media (53% of the MCO), respectively. MCOs demonstrated improved antibacterial activity mostly due to the presence of free lauric acid. The highest MCFAs-rich coconut oil revealed as much as 90% and 80% antibacterial activities against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, respectively. The results of the study showed that DIMOSFER by a local lipolytic G. candidum can be used to produce MCFAs as natural, effective, and safe antimicrobial agent. The produced MCOs and MCFAs could be further applied in food and pharmaceutical industries.
  7. Interesterified palm olein lowers postprandial glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide response in type 2 diabetes
    Mo SY, Lai OM, Chew BH, Ismail R, Bakar SA, Jabbar NA, et al.
    Eur J Nutr, 2019 Aug;58(5):1873-1885.
    PMID: 29872922 DOI: 10.1007/s00394-018-1738-6
    PURPOSE: We aim to investigate the postprandial effects of palm olein (PO) and chemically interesterified palm olein (IPO) with different proportions of palmitic acid at the sn-2 position using high oleic sunflower oil (HOS) as control fat on concentrations of gut hormones, glucose homeostasis, satiety, lipid and inflammatory parameters in type 2 diabetic (T2D) subjects.

    METHODS: Using a randomised double-blind crossover design, 21 (men = 6, women = 15) T2D subjects consumed test meals (3.65 MJ) consisting of a high fat muffin (containing 50 g test fats provided as PO, IPO or HOS) and a milkshake. Postprandial changes in gut hormones, glucose homeostasis, satiety, lipid and inflammatory parameters after meals were analysed. Some of the solid fractions of the IPO were removed and thus the fatty acid composition of the PO and IPO was not entirely equal (PO vs IPO: palmitate 39.8 vs 38.7; oleate 43.6 vs 45.1). PO, IPO and HOS contained 9.7, 38.9 and 0.2 g/100 g total fatty acids of palmitic acid at the sn-2 position, respectively. At 37 °C, IPO contained 4.2% SFC whereas PO and HOS were completely melted.

    RESULTS: Our novel observation shows that the incremental area under curve (iAUC) 0-6 h of plasma GIP concentration was on average 16% lower following IPO meal compared with PO and HOS (P 

  8. Medium chain triglyceride and medium-and long chain triglyceride: metabolism, production, health impacts and its applications - a review
    Lee YY, Tang TK, Chan ES, Phuah ET, Lai OM, Tan CP, et al.
    Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr, 2021 Jan 22.
    PMID: 33480262 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1873729
    Structured lipid is a type of modified form of lipid that is "fabricated" with the purpose to improve the nutritional and functional properties of conventional fats and oils derived from animal and plant sources. Such healthier choice of lipid received escalating attention from the public for its capability to manage the rising prevalence of metabolic syndrome. Of which, medium-chain triacylglycerol (MCT) and medium-and long-chain triacylglycerol (MLCT) are the few examples of the "new generation" custom-made healthful lipids which are mainly composed of medium chain fatty acid (MCFA). MCT is made up exclusively of MCFA whereas MLCT contains a mixture of MCFA and long chain fatty acid (LCFA), respectively. Attributed by the unique metabolism of MCFA which is rapidly metabolized by the body, MCFA and MCT showed to acquire multiple physiological and functional properties in managing and reversing certain health disorders. Several chemically or enzymatically oils and fats modification processes catalyzed by a biological or chemical catalyst such as acidolysis, interesterification and esterification are adopted to synthesis MCT and MLCT. With their purported health benefits, MCT and MLCT are widely being used as nutraceutical in food and pharmaceutical sectors. This article aims to provide a comprehensive review on MCT and MLCT, with an emphasis on the basic understanding of its structures, properties, unique metabolism; the current status of the touted health benefits; latest routes of production; its up-to-date applications in the different food systems; relevant patents filed and its drawbacks.
  9. Mitigation of 3-MCPD esters and glycidyl esters during the physical refining process of palm oil by micro and macro laboratory scale refining
    Sim BI, Khor YP, Lai OM, Yeoh CB, Wang Y, Liu Y, et al.
    Food Chem, 2020 Oct 30;328:127147.
    PMID: 32497897 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.127147
    The reduction of the 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol esters (3-MCPDE) and glycidyl esters (GE) was successfully achieved by the optimization of four processing parameters: phosphoric acid dosage, degumming temperature, bleaching earth dosage, and deodorization temperature by response surface methodology without the need for additional processing steps. The optimized processing conditions were 0.31% phosphoric acid dosage, 50 °C degumming temperature, 3% bleaching earth dosage, and 240 °C deodorization temperature. The optimization resulted in more than 80% and 65% reduction of 3-MCPDE and GE levels, respectively with color and FFA contents maintained in the acceptable range specified by Palm Oil Refiners Association of Malaysia. The optimized refining condition was transferred to macro scale refining units of 1 kg and 3 kg capacities to investigate its successful application during scale-up process.
  10. Fulltext Mycelium-bound lipase from a locally isolated strain of Geotrichum candidum
    Loo JL, Khoramnia A, Lai OM, Long K, Ghazali HM
    Molecules, 2014 Jun 23;19(6):8556-70.
    PMID: 24959682 DOI: 10.3390/molecules19068556
    Mycelium-bound lipase (MBL), from a locally isolated Geotrichum candidum strain, was produced and characterized as a natural immobilized lipase. A time course study of its lipolytic activity in 1 L liquid broth revealed the maximum MBL activity at 4 h for mycelium cells harvested after 54 h. The yield and specific activity of MBL were 3.87 g/L dry weight and 508.33 U/g protein, respectively, while less than 0.2 U/mL lipase activity was detected in the culture supernatant. Prolonged incubation caused release of the bound lipase into the growth medium. The growth pattern of G. candidum, and production and properties of MBL were not affected by the scale. The stability of mycelia harboring lipase (MBL), harvested and lyophilized after 54 h, studied at 4 °C depicted a loss of 4.3% and 30% in MBL activity after 1 and 8 months, while the activity of free lipase was totally lost after 14 days of storage. The MBL from G. candidum displayed high substrate selectivity for unsaturated fatty acids containing a cis-9 double bond, even in crude form. This unique specificity of MBL could be a direct, simple and inexpensive way in the fats and oil industry for the selective hydrolysis or transesterification of cis-9 fatty acid residues in natural triacylglycerols.
  11. Natural Organochlorines as Precursors of 3-Monochloropropanediol Esters in Vegetable Oils
    Tiong SH, Saparin N, Teh HF, Ng TLM, Md Zain MZB, Neoh BK, et al.
    J Agric Food Chem, 2018 Jan 31;66(4):999-1007.
    PMID: 29260544 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.7b04995
    During high-temperature refining of vegetable oils, 3-monochloropropanediol (3-MCPD) esters, possible carcinogens, are formed from acylglycerol in the presence of a chlorine source. To investigate organochlorine compounds in vegetable oils as possible precursors for 3-MCPD esters, we tested crude palm, soybean, rapeseed, sunflower, corn, coconut, and olive oils for the presence of organochlorine compounds. Having found them in all vegetable oils tested, we focused subsequent study on oil palm products. Analysis of the chlorine isotope mass pattern exhibited in high-resolution mass spectrometry enabled organochlorine compound identification in crude palm oils as constituents of wax esters, fatty acid, diacylglycerols, and sphingolipids, which are produced endogenously in oil palm mesocarp throughout ripening. Analysis of thermal decomposition and changes during refining suggested that these naturally present organochlorine compounds in palm oils and perhaps in other vegetable oils are precursors of 3-MCPD esters. Enrichment and dose-response showed a linear relationship to 3-MCPD ester formation and indicated that the sphingolipid-based organochlorine compounds are the most active precursors of 3-MCPD esters.
  12. Fulltext New Insights on Degumming and Bleaching Process Parameters on The Formation of 3-Monochloropropane-1,2-Diol Esters and Glycidyl Esters in Refined, Bleached, Deodorized Palm Oil
    Sim BI, Muhamad H, Lai OM, Abas F, Yeoh CB, Nehdi IA, et al.
    J Oleo Sci, 2018 Apr 01;67(4):397-406.
    PMID: 29526878 DOI: 10.5650/jos.ess17210
    This paper examines the interactions of degumming and bleaching processes as well as their influences on the formation of 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol esters (3-MCPDE) and glycidyl esters in refined, bleached and deodorized palm oil by using D-optimal design. Water degumming effectively reduced the 3-MCPDE content up to 50%. Acid activated bleaching earth had a greater effect on 3-MCPDE reduction compared to natural bleaching earth and acid activated bleaching earth with neutral pH, indicating that performance and adsorption capacities of bleaching earth are the predominant factors in the removal of esters, rather than its acidity profile. The combination of high dosage phosphoric acid during degumming with the use of acid activated bleaching earth eliminated almost all glycidyl esters during refining. Besides, the effects of crude palm oil quality was assessed and it was found that the quality of crude palm oil determines the level of formation of 3-MCPDE and glycidyl esters in palm oil during the high temperature deodorization step of physical refining process. Poor quality crude palm oil has strong impact towards 3-MCPDE and glycidyl esters formation due to the intrinsic components present within. The findings are useful to palm oil refining industry in choosing raw materials as an input during the refining process.
  13. New functionalities of Maillard reaction products as emulsifiers and encapsulating agents, and the processing parameters: a brief review
    Lee YY, Tang TK, Phuah ET, Alitheen NB, Tan CP, Lai OM
    J Sci Food Agric, 2017 Mar;97(5):1379-1385.
    PMID: 27801514 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.8124
    Non-enzymatic browning has been a wide and interesting research area in the food industry, ranging from the complexity of the reaction to its applications in the food industry as well as its ever-debatable health effects. This review provides a new perspective to the Maillard reaction apart from its ubiquitous function in enhancing food flavour, taste and appearance. It focuses on the recent application of Maillard reaction products as an inexpensive and excellent source of emulsifiers as well as superior encapsulating matrices for the entrapment of bioactive compounds. Additionally, it will also discuss the latest approaches employed to perform the Maillard reaction as well as several important reaction parameters that need to be taken into consideration when conducting the Maillard reaction. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.
  14. Non-aqueous foams formed by whipping diacylglycerol stabilized oleogel
    Lei M, Zhang N, Lee WJ, Tan CP, Lai OM, Wang Y, et al.
    Food Chem, 2020 May 15;312:126047.
    PMID: 31884300 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.126047
    Formation of foams is critical for tailoring the texture and mouthfeel of fat-based products. Diacylglycerol (DAG) is regarded as a preferable alternative structurant to hydrogenated lipid. Effect of DAG concentration (2-10 wt%) on the characteristics of oleogels and foams including crystal polymorphisms, size and distribution, rheological and thermodynamic properties was investigated. Oleogel prepared with 10 wt% DAG had comparable whipping and foaming stability to that of 6 wt% fully hydrogenated palm oil (FHPO). DAG formed small plate-crystals which tend to occur at the bubble surface, whereas FHPO showed needle-like crystals that were formed mainly in the continuous phase. For the 2 wt% FHPO-8 wt% DAG-based oil foams, interfacial templating crystallization effect contributed to the smaller bubble size and improved rheological properties whereby less oil drainage and foam breakdown occurred. Hence, the non-aqueous foam formed by DAG has broad application prospect because of the thermoresponsive properties and the desirable health benefits.
  15. Open-label, single-arm, single-center clinical study on the effectiveness and safety of a moisturizer containing tocotrienol-rich composition in children with mild to moderate atopic dermatitis
    How KN, Chang HW, Lai OM
    J Cosmet Dermatol, 2023 Oct;22(10):2746-2754.
    PMID: 37143441 DOI: 10.1111/jocd.15793
    BACKGROUND: Little is known about antioxidant efficacy of topical vitamin E on atopic dermatitis (AD) due to lack of controlled clinical studies.

    AIM: The study evaluates the effectiveness and safety of a topical moisturizer containing tocotrienol-rich composition over 12 weeks on patients aged between 1 month and 12 years with mild to moderate AD.

    METHODS: We conducted a 12 weeks, prospective, open-label clinical study on the effect of tocotrienol as an adjunct to conventional treatment. This study was approved by the Ethics Committee for Research Involving Human Subject. JKEUPM-2019-274 (NMMR-19-1588-49234).

    RESULTS: Thirty AD patients with a mean age of 2.77 ± 3.05 were enrolled in the study. At week-12, significant reduction of investigator global assessment (63.4%), Patient-Oriented Scoring Atopic Dermatitis Index (PO-SCORAD) (65%), and SCORAD (52.3%) was noted (p 

  16. Fulltext Optimal binary solvent extraction system for phenolic antioxidants from mengkudu (Morinda citrifolia) fruit
    Thoo YY, Ho SK, Abas F, Lai OM, Ho CW, Tan CP
    Molecules, 2013 Jun 14;18(6):7004-22.
    PMID: 23771061 DOI: 10.3390/molecules18067004
    Antioxidants have been widely used in the food industry to enhance product quality by preventing oxidation of susceptible substances. This work was carried out to maximise the recovery of total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS) radical-scavenging capacity and 2,2'-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical-scavenging capacity from Morinda citrifolia fruit via modification of the ethanol concentration, extraction time and extraction temperature at minimal processing cost. The optimised conditions yielded values of 881.57 ± 17.74 mg GAE/100 g DW for TPC, 552.53 ± 34.16 mg CE/100 g DW for TFC, 799.20 ± 2.97 µmol TEAC/100 g DW for ABTS and 2,317.01 ± 18.13 µmol TEAC/100 g DW for DPPH were 75% ethanol, 40 min of time and 57 °C. The four responses did not differ significantly (p > 0.05) from predicted values, indicating that models obtained are suitable to the optimisation of extraction conditions for phenolics from M. citrifolia. The relative amounts of flavonoids were 0.784 ± 0.01 mg quercetin/g of extract and 1.021 ± 0.04 mg rutin/g of extract. On the basis of the results obtained, M. citrifolia extract can be used as a valuable bioactive source of natural antioxidants.
  17. Optimization of conditions for the single step IMAC purification of miraculin from Synsepalum dulcificum
    He Z, Tan JS, Lai OM, Ariff AB
    Food Chem, 2015 Aug 15;181:19-24.
    PMID: 25794715 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.11.166
    In this study, the methods for extraction and purification of miraculin from Synsepalum dulcificum were investigated. For extraction, the effect of different extraction buffers (phosphate buffer saline, Tris-HCl and NaCl) on the extraction efficiency of total protein was evaluated. Immobilized metal ion affinity chromatography (IMAC) with nickel-NTA was used for the purification of the extracted protein, where the influence of binding buffer pH, crude extract pH and imidazole concentration in elution buffer upon the purification performance was explored. The total amount of protein extracted from miracle fruit was found to be 4 times higher using 0.5M NaCl as compared to Tris-HCl and phosphate buffer saline. On the other hand, the use of Tris-HCl as binding buffer gave higher purification performance than sodium phosphate and citrate-phosphate buffers in IMAC system. The optimum purification condition of miraculin using IMAC was achieved with crude extract at pH 7, Tris-HCl binding buffer at pH 7 and the use of 300 mM imidazole as elution buffer, which gave the overall yield of 80.3% and purity of 97.5%. IMAC with nickel-NTA was successfully used as a single step process for the purification of miraculin from crude extract of S. dulcificum.
  18. Optimization of palm oil physical refining process for reduction of 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) ester formation
    Zulkurnain M, Lai OM, Tan SC, Abdul Latip R, Tan CP
    J Agric Food Chem, 2013 Apr 3;61(13):3341-9.
    PMID: 23464796 DOI: 10.1021/jf4009185
    The reduction of 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) ester formation in refined palm oil was achieved by incorporation of additional processing steps in the physical refining process to remove chloroester precursors prior to the deodorization step. The modified refining process was optimized for the least 3-MCPD ester formation and acceptable refined palm oil quality using response surface methodology (RSM) with five processing parameters: water dosage, phosphoric acid dosage, degumming temperature, activated clay dosage, and deodorization temperature. The removal of chloroester precursors was largely accomplished by increasing the water dosage, while the reduction of 3-MCPD esters was a compromise in oxidative stability and color of the refined palm oil because some factors such as acid dosage, degumming temperature, and deodorization temperature showed contradictory effects. The optimization resulted in 87.2% reduction of 3-MCPD esters from 2.9 mg/kg in the conventional refining process to 0.4 mg/kg, with color and oil stability index values of 2.4 R and 14.3 h, respectively.
  19. Fulltext Optimization of process parameters in preparation of tocotrienol-rich red palm oil-based nanoemulsion stabilized by Tween80-Span 80 using response surface methodology
    Chong WT, Tan CP, Cheah YK, B Lajis AF, Habi Mat Dian NL, Kanagaratnam S, et al.
    PLoS One, 2018;13(8):e0202771.
    PMID: 30142164 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0202771
    Red palm oil (RPO) is a natural source of Vitamin E (70-80% tocotrienol). It is a potent natural antioxidant that can be used in skin-care products. Its antioxidant property protects skin from inflammation and aging. In our work, a tocotrienol-rich RPO-based nanoemulsion formulation was optimized using response surface methodology (RSM) and formulated using high pressure homogenizer. Effect of the concentration of three independent variables [surfactant (5-15 wt%), co-solvent (10-30 wt%) and homogenization pressure (500-700 bar)] toward two response variables (droplet size, polydispersity index) was studied using central composite design (CCD) coupled to RSM. RSM analysis showed that the experimental data could be fitted into a second-order polynomial model and the coefficients of multiple determination (R2) is 0.9115. The optimized formulation of RPO-based nanoemulsion consisted of 6.09 wt% mixed surfactant [Tween 80/Span 80 (63:37, wt)], 20 wt% glycerol as a co-solvent via homogenization pressure (500 bar). The optimized tocotrienol-rich RPO-based nanoemulsion response values for droplet size and polydispersity index were 119.49nm and 0.286, respectively. The actual values of the formulated nanoemulsion were in good agreement with the predicted values obtained from RSM, thus the optimized compositions have the potential to be used as a nanoemulsion for cosmetic formulations.
  20. Optimization of processing parameters for the preparation of phytosterol microemulsions by the solvent displacement method
    Leong WF, Che Man YB, Lai OM, Long K, Misran M, Tan CP
    J Agric Food Chem, 2009 Sep 23;57(18):8426-33.
    PMID: 19694442 DOI: 10.1021/jf901853y
    The purpose of this study was to optimize the parameters involved in the production of water-soluble phytosterol microemulsions for use in the food industry. In this study, response surface methodology (RSM) was employed to model and optimize four of the processing parameters, namely, the number of cycles of high-pressure homogenization (1-9 cycles), the pressure used for high-pressure homogenization (100-500 bar), the evaporation temperature (30-70 degrees C), and the concentration ratio of microemulsions (1-5). All responses-particle size (PS), polydispersity index (PDI), and percent ethanol residual (%ER)-were well fit by a reduced cubic model obtained by multiple regression after manual elimination. The coefficient of determination (R(2)) and absolute average deviation (AAD) value for PS, PDI, and %ER were 0.9628 and 0.5398%, 0.9953 and 0.7077%, and 0.9989 and 1.0457%, respectively. The optimized processing parameters were 4.88 (approximately 5) homogenization cycles, homogenization pressure of 400 bar, evaporation temperature of 44.5 degrees C, and concentration ratio of microemulsions of 2.34 cycles (approximately 2 cycles) of high-pressure homogenization. The corresponding responses for the optimized preparation condition were a minimal particle size of 328 nm, minimal polydispersity index of 0.159, and <0.1% of ethanol residual. The chi-square test verified the model, whereby the experimental values of PS, PDI, and %ER agreed with the predicted values at a 0.05 level of significance.
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