THEORY: We present a high-fidelity, image-based nonequilibrium computational model to quantify and visualize the mass transport as well as the deactivation process of a core-shell polymeric microreactor. In stark contrast with other published works, our microstructure-based computer simulation can provide a single-particle visualization with a micrometer spatial accuracy.
FINDINGS: We show how the interplay of kinetics and thermodynamics controls the product-induced deactivation process. The model predicts and visualizes the non-trivial, spatially resolved active catalyst phase patterns within a core-shell system. Moreover, we also show how the microstructure influences the formation of foulant within a core-shell structure; that is, begins from the core and grows radially onto the shell section. Our results suggest that the deactivation process is highly governed by the porosity/microstructure of the microreactor as well as the affinity of the products towards the solid phase of the reactor.
METHODS: Three databases were searched from January 2011 to June 2025. Eligible evidence comprised only systematic reviews (with/without meta-analysis) published in English which focused on undergraduate or postgraduate dental students using VR, haptic, or integrated VR-haptic simulation for skills training. Two reviewers independently screened records, extracted data, appraised methodological quality using A MeaSurement Tool to Assess systematic Reviews 2 (AMSTAR 2), and calculated the Corrected Covered Area (CCA) to assess citation overlap.
RESULTS: Six systematic reviews met the inclusion criteria; one included a meta-analysis reporting a significant performance advantage after haptic-simulator training, albeit with very high heterogeneity (I2 = 92%). Across reviews, VR-haptic training was consistently associated with improved preclinical performance (accuracy, error reduction, efficiency) and greater learner confidence, with the strongest evidence in restorative dentistry and supportive signals in endodontics, implantology, periodontics, paediatric dentistry, radiology and oral & maxillofacial surgery. Methodological confidence was limited: AMSTAR 2 ratings were low to critically low. Overlap analysis indicated moderate redundancy (CCA = 6.05%), suggesting some recirculation of primary trials across reviews.
CONCLUSIONS: VR and haptic simulators confer meaningful advantages for preclinical acquisition and learner confidence in dental education, but certainty is tempered by methodological weaknesses and substantial heterogeneity. Their optimal role is as high-fidelity adjuncts within blended curricula.